(Jc 


/r 

oL- 

4^i<^~ 


cstn^ 


/ 


*—V~^> 


f^t 

(k-*-*-  - 


- 


a 


•  /* 

', 


ff 


•  - 


m 


NORMAL  DEVELOPERS  FOR  CRAMER  PLATES. 


PYRO    DEVELOPER. 


PYRO    SOLUTION. 

2  drachms  Oxalic  Acid  Solution,  (i  part  Oxalic  Acid  to  10  Water.). 
i  ounce  Pyrogallic  Acid, 
15  ounces  Water. 

ALKALINE   SOLUTION. 

Water 60  ounces, 

Sulphite  of  Sodium 5  ounces  dried  or  10  ounces  crystals, 

Carbonate  of  Sodium 2\  ounces  dried  or  5  ounces  crystals, 

f  Sulphite  of  Soda  Solution  Hydrometer  test  80] 

or  by  Hydrometers  >  equal  parts. 

[  Carbonate  of  Soda  Solution  test  40  J 

The  Sulphite  of  Sodium  and  Alkaline  Solutions  must  be  kept  in  well  stoppered  bottles, 
as  they  deteriorate  by  contact  with  air. 

Mix  in  the  following  proportions  for  immediate  use : 

FOR  WINTER.  FOR    SUMMER. 

Alkaline  Solution i  oz.  I 

10  OZ"     Water....  *«<* 


Alkaline  Solution 2  oz.  I 

Water 8  oz.  J 

Pyro  Solution i    oz. 


Pyro  Solution  , l.i     oz. 


always  using  twice  as  much  Alkaline  as  Pyro  Solution. 

All  developers  work  best  at  a  temperature  of  60  to  70  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

A  more  concentrated  developer  v/orks  fast  and  with  much  contrast.  A  diluted  de- 
veloper works  slower  but  with  finer  detail  and  is  best  for  short  exposures.  A  developer 
which  is  too  concentrated  or  too  warm  produces  fog,  unless  it  is  restrained  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  few  drops  of  a  10  per  cent  Bromide  of  Potassium  Solution. 

EIKONOGEN    DEVELOPER. 


f  Eikonogen i    ounce 

No.  i.  <  Water 60 ounces 

I  Sulphite  of  Soda i£  ounces  dry,  or  3  ounces  crystals 

OR   BY  HYDROMETER, 

Eikonogen i    ounce 

Water 50  ounces 

Sulphite  of  Soda  Solution,  Test  80 10  ounces 

Carbonate  of  Potassium i  ounce 

Water .'.. .40  ounces.       t^l 

For  use :  3  parts  No.  I,  i  part  No.  2. 


No.  2.  { 


This  developer  keeps  well  and  works  best  after  'being  used  a  few  times.     It  may 
be  left  in  the  dish,  immersing  the  plates  therein,  and  occasionally  adding  fresh  solution, 
which  should  be  cool  in  summer  and  moderately  warm  in  winter.    Pour  the  developer 
back  into  the'bottle  when  the  day's  work  is  done. 

When  starting  with  fresh  solution  add  some  of  the  old,  or,  if  no  old  is  on 
hnnd,  adcl  to  20  ounces  fresh  solution  10  minims  (or  drops)  Bromide  of  Po- 
tassium solution  (1  to  10) 

ALWAYS  DEVELOP  THE  PLATE  FAR  ENOUGH  TO  INSURE  GOOD  PRINTING  DENSITY. 

USE  MALUNCKRODT'S  C.  P.  SULPHITE  AND  CARBONATE  OF  SODA. 


SOME'OTHER 


Photographic  Publications. 

Selected  from  Scovill's  Catalogue  of  Books. 

Price, 
Per  Copy. 

ART  RECREATIONS.— A  guide  to  decorative  art.    Ladies'  popular  guide  in  home 

decorative  work.    Edited  by  MARION  KEMBLE $2  oo 

THE  FERROTYPERS'  GUIDE.— Cheap  and  complete.     For  the  ferrotyper,  this 

is  the  only  standard  work.    Seventh  thousand 75 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS  OF   EUROPE.— By  H.  BADEN  PRITCHARD, 

F.C.S.    Paper,  50  cts.  ;   Cloth i  oo 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  MANIPULATION.— Second  edition.    Treating  of  the  practice 

of  the  art  and  its  various  applications  to  nature.      By  LAKE  PRICE i  50 

HISTORY    AND   HAND-BOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY.— Translated   from  the 

French  of  Gaston  Tissandier,  with  seventy  illustrations.    Cloth 2  50 

AMERICAN  CARBON  MANUAL.— For  those  who  want  to  try  the  carbon  print- 
ing process,  this  work  gives  the  most  detailed  information.  Cloth 2  oo 

MANUAL  DE  FOTOGRAFIA.— By  AUGUSTUS  LE  PLONGEON.      (Hand-Book  for 

Spanish   Photographers.)    Reduced  to TOO 

SECRETS  OF  THE  DARK   CHAMBER.-  By  D.  D.  T.  DAVIE i  oo 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHER'S  GUIDE.— By  JOHN  TOWLER,  M.D.      A  text-book  for 

the  Operator  and  Amateur i  50 

A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON  SOLAR  CRAYON  PORTRAITS  AND 
TRANSPARENT  LIQUID  WATER-COLORS.— By  J.  A.  BARHYDT.  Practical 
ideas  and  directions  given.  Amateurs  will  learn  ideas  of  color  from  this  book 
that  will  be  of  value  to  them.  And  any  one  by  carefully  following  the  directions 
on  Crayon,  will  be  able  to  make  a  good  Crayon  Portrait 50 

THE  BRITISH  JOURNAL   ALMANAC  FOR  1888 5o 

PHOTO.  NEWS  YEARBOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  for  1888 50 

CANOE  AND  CAMERA.— A  Photographic  tour  of  two  hundred  miles  through 

Maine  forests.    By  THOMAS  SEDGWICK  STEELE.     Illustrated i  50 

PADDLE  AND  PORTAGE.  — By  THOMAS  SEDGWICK  STEELE i  50 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTOR  OF  PHOTO-SNGRAVING  AND  ZINC  ETCH- 
ING PROCESSES.— By  ALEX.  F.  W.  LESLIE 5C 

PHOTO-ENGRAVING  on  Zinc  and  Copper  in  Line  and  Half-Tone,  and  PHOTO- 
LITHOGRAPHY. A  Practical  Manual,  by  W.  T.  WILKINSON.  Cloth  bound.  2  oo 


SOME  PHOTOGRAPHIC  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Selected  from  Scovill's  Catalogue  of  Books.  Price, 

Per  Copy. 

AMERICAN  HAND-BOOK  OF   THE    DAGUERREOTYPE.-By  S.  D.  HUM- 
PHREY.   (Fifth  Edition.)     This  book  contains  the  various  processes  employed  in 

taking   Heliographic  impressions ]0 

THE    NEW    PRACTICAL  PHOTOGRAPHIC   ALMANAC.— Edited  by  J.    H. 

FlTZGIBBON t 2  S 

MOSAICS  FOR  1870,  1871,  1872,  1873,  1875,  1878,  1882,  1883,  1884 each,  25 

BRITISH  JOURNAL  ALMANAC  FOR  1878,1882,1887 "  „ 

PHOTO.  NEWS  YEAR-BOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  1871,  1882,  1887...   .  25 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHER'S  FRIEND  ALMANAC  FOR  1873. 


FORM  F.  D.  12  H. 


NOTE.    These  directions  are  intended  for  those  somewhat  skilled  in  the  art.    Absolute 
novices  should  read  Kodak  "  Manuals  "  in  order  to  learn  the  details  of  development. 


DEVELOPING 

Eastman's 


Transparent   Films 


PREPARATION    FOR    DEVELOPMENT. 

Eastman's  Transparent  Films  should  all  be  treated  in  the  same  manner 
chemically,  but  as  they  are  spooled  differently,  the  preparation  and  method 
of  handling  in  development  vary  somewhat.  Briefly,  the  methods  of  manipu- 
lation are  as  follows  : 

KODAK    CARTRIDGE    FILMS. 

We  recommend  the  development  of  cartridge  films  in  the  strip.  The 
operator  can  readily  handle  a  12  exposure  strip  (as  described  in  Section  I)  up 
to  and  including  the  3%  x  4^  size.  In  the  larger  sizes  those  desiring  to  follow 
the  strip  method  of  development  should  use  the  6  exposure  cartridges  if  they 
find  the  longer  ones  cannot  be  conveniently  handled. 

If  the  operator  prefers  to  cut  up  the  cartridge  film  before  development,  he 
should  carefully  follow  the  directions  given  in  Section  II.,  or  better  still,  should 
provide  himself  with  an  Eastman  Film  Cutting  Board.  See  price  list,  page  4. 

ROLL    HOLDER    CARTRIDGES. 

Roll  Holder  Cartridges  are  always  to  be  developed  in  the  strip.  In  order 
to  facilitate  this  method  of  development  the  films  are  perforated  at  a  point 
midway  between  exposures  6  and  7,  at  which  point  the  film  may  be  cut  and 
each  half  developed  separately.  In  the  smaller  sizes,  however,  the  operator 
will  usually  prefer  to  handle  the  entire  strip  at  once,  in  which  case  he  need  pay 
no  attention  to  the  perforations.  In  the  4x5  and  5x7  sizes  it  is  advisable  to 
cut  the  ffim  at  the  perforations.  Development  is  to  be  carried  on  as  directed  in 
Section  I. 

OLD    STYLE    FILMS. 

All  of  the  old  style  Kodaks  (including  the  ABC  series)  and  Roll  Holders 
perforate  the  films  between  each  exposure.  With  such  films  the  exposures 
may  be  cut  apart  and  developed  singly  or  may  be  divided  into  convenient 
lengths  for  strip  development,  of  course,  chitting  the  strips  at  points  where 
perforations  occur. 


SECTION    I. 


STRIP    DEVELOPMENT. 

a.  Unroll  the  film  and  detach  the  entire  strip  of  film  from 
the  black  paper,  taking  care  not  to  touch  the  face  of  the  film  in 
so  doing. 

b.  Pass  the  film,  face  down,  through  the  tray  of  clean  cold 
water,  as  shown  in  cut,  holding  one  end  in  each  hand.    Pass 
through  the  water  several  times,  that  there  may  be  no  bubbles 
remaining  on -film.     When  it  is  thoroughly  wet,  with  no  air 
bubbles,  place  the  strip  of  film  in  a  pail  or  wash-bowl  of  clean 
cold   water   which   is   large   enough  so  that  the  film  may  be 
immersed  fully  without  folding  tightly  enough  to  crack  it. 

c.  Now  prepare  the  developer  (see  Section  III.)  and  pass  the 
film  through  it  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  wetting  it, 
and  shown  in  cut.    Keep  it  constantly  in  motion,  and  in  about 
one  minute  the  high  lights  will  begin  to  darken  and  you  will 
readily  be  able  to  distinguish  the  unexposed  sections  between 
the  negatives.     If  the  negatives  develop  evenly,  development 
may  be  completed  before  cutting  them  apart. 

d.  If  some  of  the  negatives  flash  up  more  quickly  than  the 

others,  cut  the  negatives  apart  with  a  pair  of  shears  and  place  them  in  a  tray  of  clear 
water.  The  negatives  may  now  be  immersed  in  tiie  developer  one  at  a  time  and  developed 
in  the  usual  manner. 


SECTION    II 


CUTTING    UP    KODAK    CARTRIDGE    FILMS. 


If  it  is  desired  to  cut  up  the  film  before 
development,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  end 
be  not  allowed  to  roll  up  over  the  paper.  The 
exposures  should  be  cut  apart  with  the  paper 
on  top. 


RIGHT. 


Fig.  I.  shows  a  Kodak  cartridge  unrolled 
with  the  film  on  top.  To  correct  this,  simply 
turn  back  the  film,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines,  thus  bringing  the  film  under  the  paper, 
Fig.  II.  Pocket  Kodak,  No.  2  (3>^  x  3>£)  and  No. 
4  (4  x  5)  Bulls-Eye  films  are  to  be  cut  by  the 
marks  appearing  midway  between  the  figures 
in  the  center  of  the  black  paper.  No.  1,  No.  1  A 
and  No.  3  Folding  Pocket  Kodak  and  the  Cartridge  Kodak  films  are  to  be  cut  at  points 
where  numbers  occur,  as  indicated  by  marks  on  edges  of  black  paper. 

For  cutting  up  Panoram-Kodak  Films  see  Special  Instructions  in  Manuals. 

"With  the  No.  4  Bullet  and  Bulls-Eye  Films  pay  no  attention  to  marks  0:1  the  same  edge 
of  black  paper  with  the  letters  A,  B,  etc.,  except  when  used  in  Panoram-Kodak. 


SECTION  III. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

Except  when  handled  in  the  strip  Transparent  Films  must  be  kept  face  down  in  all  of 
the  solutions  in  order  to  avoid  curling.  Otherwise  their  treatment  is  the  same  as  glass 

TO    DEVELOP    TAKE 

*One  pair  Eastman's  Hydrochinon  Developer  Powders.  Water,  4  ozs. 

*See  price  list. 

RESTRAINER. 

Bromide  of  Potash,  1  oz.  Water,  6  ozs. 

Restrainer  is  to  be  used  only  in  case  of  over-exposure. 

Use  5  to  15  drops  in  4  ozs.  of  developer  according  to  amount  of  over-exposure. 
As  soon  as  developed  rinse  in  three  changes  of  water  and  transfer  to  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  alxim  for  2  minutes,  then  rinse  again  and  fix. 

FIXING    SOLUTION. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  4  ozs.  Water,  16  ozs. 

If  a  number  of  films  are  fixed  together  in  one  tray  they  should  be  put  in  one  at  a  time, 
face  down,  to  avoid  scratching  or  cutting  the  sensitive  side  by  contact  with  the  sharp  corners. 
After  fixing,  wash  thoroughly,  then  immerse  for  five  minutes  in  the 

SOAKING    SOLUTION. 

Water,  32  ozs.  Glycerine,  1  oz. 

t3i^Use  no  alcohol  in  Soaking  Solution. 

Remove  from  Soaking  Solution  and  pin  by  corners  on  board  to  dry  spontaneously. 

Any  tear  drops  of  the  Soaking  Solution  should  be  removed  with  a  bit  of  blotting  paper 
or  absorbent  cotton.  When  the  negative  is  thoroughly  dry,  wipe  the  back  with  a  soft  cloth. 

The  object  of  the  Soaking  Solution  is  to  prevent  the  film,  from  curling  when  dry.  The 
negative  must  not  be  rinsed  after  the  Soaking  Solution. 

13^° Always  keep  finished  negatives  fiat — do  not  roll  them  up.  An  Eastman  Indexed 
Negative  Album  keeps  them  flat  and  in  perfect  order. 

All  solutions  must  be  used  ice  cold.   A  piece  of  ice  should  be  kept  in  the  hypo.  bath. 

Complaints  regarding  faulty  films  must  always  be  accompanied  by  the  emulsion  number. 

The  foregoing  formula  will  be  found  particularly  desirable  for  the  amateur  as  East- 
man's Hydrochinon  Developer  Powders  do  not  stain  the  fingers.  If,  however,  the  photog- 
rapher desires  to  mix  his  own  developer,  the  following  may  be  substituted,  all  the  other 
operations  remaining  the  same  as  when  Hydrochinon  is  used : 

PYRO    FORMULA. 

Pyrogallic   Acid  Solution.  Soda   Solution. 

Pyrogallic  Acid,  %  ounce.  Sulphite  of  Soda  (crystals  >,  6  ounces. 

Sulphurous  Acid,  20  Minims.  Carbonate  of  Soda  (.crystals),  4  ounces. 

Water,  32  ounces.  Water,  32  ounces. 

TO    DEVELOP,    taKe 

Pyro  Solution,  1  oz. ;  Soda  Solution,  1  oz. ;  Water,  2  ozs. 

If  desired,  Eastman's  Pyro  Powders  can  be  substituted  for  above  Pyro  formula  and 
used  in  same  manner  as  described  for  Hydrochinon  PowdersT  (See  price  list.) 

DATING    FILM. 

After  a  test  extending  over  a  period  of  eight  years,  the  success  of  our  system  of  dating 
film  has  been  fully  demonstrated.  Each  package  is  labeled  with  the  date  beyond  which  it 
will  not  be  replaced,  in  cases  of  deterioration,  thus : 

Customers  can  thus  tell  at  a  glance  just 
how  much  time  remains  in  which  to  use  and 
develop  the  film.  After  the  date  on  the 
label,  film  should  nof  be  put  to  any  important 


30-SENSITOMETER. 


NOTICE.    This  film  must  be  devel- 
oped before 


use  without  testing. 

Film  that  is  incapable  of  making  good 
negatives  will  always  be  replaced  free  of 

charge,  provided  it  is  returned  to  us  prior  to     ' 

the  date  on  the  label.    But  no  film  will  be  exchanged  simply  because  it  has  become  old. on 
the  customer's  hands. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  films,  like  all  highly  sensitized  products,  are  liable  to  deterior- 
ate to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  age,  we  have  established  the  above  rules  for  the  protec- 
tion of  consumers  of,  dealers  in  and  manufacturers  of  Eastman's  Transparent  Film. 

NOTE. — By  our  method  of  film  making,  which  years  of  experience'has  shown  to  be  the  only  practicable  method  of 
turning  out  superior  and  reliable  film,  a  joint  occurs  once  in  about  twenty  feet.  This  joint  sometimes  comes  in  the 
middle  of  a  roll  of  film  where  it  is  impossible  to  cut  it  out,  thus  causing  one  slight  ridge  across  the  film.  Although 
sometimes  quite  noticeable  in  the  negative  this  joint  will  rarely  show  in  the  finished  print.  In  case  it  Hoes  the  defect 
can  be  easily  remedied  by  scraping  down  the  ridge  on  the  back  of  the  negative  with  a  knife,  or  better  yet,  a  bit  of 
pumice  stone. 


U 
H 


Tonn  S.  D.  7B.  Feb.  1,  1899. 

PP^  USE  THE  SOLIO  HARDENER  IN  FIXING  BATH  USED  WITH 

THIS  PAPER.  _ 

.  .  .  DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  .  .  . 
EASTMAN'S    SOLTO    PAPER 

SEPARATE    BATH     FORMULA. 

Wash  in  5  or  6  changes  of  water  or  sufficient  to  remove  the  free  silver. 

Tone  in  a  plain  gold  bath,  using  about  i  gr.  of  gold  to  48  oz.  of  water. 
Neutralize  by  adding  a  saturated  solution  of  borax,  bi-carbonate  of  soda  or 
sal  soda. 

When  toned,  immerse  prints  in  running  water  where  they  may  remain  until 
all  are  ready  for  the  fixing. 

If  running  water  cannot  be  had  put  prints  into 

SHORT          Salt,    -  i  oz. 

STOP  :    Water,     -  i  gal. 

If  there  is  a  large  batch  of  prints  to  be  toned  do  not  allow  prints  to  lie  in 
short  stop  solution,  but  put  them  into  a  tray  containing  clear  water  where  they 
may  remain  until  all  are  ready  for  the  fixing. 

Fix  Twenty  Minutes  in 

Water,  ...  x  gal. 

Hypo,      -  -  13  oz. 

Solio  Hardener,      -  %  oz. 

To  Mix  with  Hydrometer,  take  water  i  gal.,  add  sufficient  Hypo  to  test 
25  gr.  to  the  oz.,  and  add  l/2  oz.  of  SOLIO  Hardener. 

On  account  of  its  simplicity  and  cheapness,  we  advise  the  SOLIO  Hardener 
Fixing  Bath,  but  give  the  alum  fixing  bath  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  prefer  it, 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  -  -  6  oz. 

Alum  Crystals),      -  -  -  2^  oz. 


RTH         Sulphite  of  Soda  (Crystals),    -  %  oz. 

BATH  :      water,  -  7o  oz, 

When  dissolved  add  %  oz.  of  borax  dissolved  in  10  oz. 

hot  water. 

This  fixing  bath  must  be  made  about  10  hours  before  use.  As  it  keeps 
indefinitely  before  use  it  may  be  made  up  in  large  quantities. 

"Wash  i  hour  in  running  cold  water  or  in  16  changes  of  cold  water,  keeping 
prints  separated  so  the  water  may  have  a  chance  to  eliminate  the  chemicals. 

DETAILS. 

The  toning  bath  should  tone  in  6  or  7  minutes. 

Tone  by  transmitted  light  for  the  high  lights  and  half  tones  only,  paying  no 
attention  whatever  to  the  shadows. 

We  recommend  a  neutral  bath  and  advise  the  use  of  Squibb's  red  litmus  to 
test  with. 

If  the  bath  tones  uneven  or  streaky,  add  water  until  it  tones  in  8  or  10 
minutes,  and  make  it  slightly  alkaline. 

One  gallon  of  fixing  bath  is  sufficient  for  i  gross  cabinet  size  SOLIO  or  its 
equivalent. 

l^To  Make  SOLIO  Hardener: 

Chloride  of  Aluminum,         -  3  oz. 

Bi-Sulphite  of  Soda,        -  2J/£  oz. 

Cold  Water,  -  -          12  oz. 

Put  both  chemicals  in  the  water  and  shake  until  dissolved. 

SOLIO  HARDENER  POWDERS.  It  is  important  that  properly  tested 
chemicals  should  be  used  in  mixing  the  SOLIO  Hardener,  as  otherwise  the 
desired  results  may  not  be  secured.  We  shall,  therefore,  put  up  in  convenient 
powder  form,  the  amount  of  chemicals  required  to  make  16  ounces  of  the  SOLIO 
Hardener  at  40  cents  each. 


COMBINED  TONING  BATH. 

Stock             J      Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  8  oz. 

Solution :     -f*-     Alum,  (Crystals)  -      6  oz. 

Sugar,  (granulated),  2  oz. 

Water,        -  -    80  oz. 

Dissolve  above  in  cold  -wafer,  and 
When  dissolved  add  Borax,  2  oz. 
Dissolved  in  hot  water,  8  oz. 

Let  stand  over  night  and  decant  clear  liquid. 

Stock  r>    Pure  Chloride  of  Gold,        -  7V&  grains.* 

Solution  : '  -*-*     Acetate  of  Lead,  (Sugar  of  Lead),   64  graii.s. 
Water,  -    8  oz. 

Solution  B  should  be  shaken  up  before  using  and  not  filtered. 
To  tone  J5  Cabinets  take: 

Stock  Solution  A,      -  -        8  oz. 

Stock  Solution  B,  ...  !  oz. 

Place  prints  without  previous  washing  into  the  above. 

Tone  to  desired  color  and  immerse  prints  for  5  minutes  in  following  Salt 
Solution  to  stop  the  toning. 

Salt,     -  -  -  x  oz. 

Water,      -  -  3:'  oz. 

The  extra  fixing  bath  should  be  used  to  ensure  thorough  fixing. 

After  the  salt  bath  give  one  change  of  cold  water  and  fix  for  10  minutes 
in  the 

EXTRA                Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  i  oz. 

FIXING            Sulphite  of  Soda,  (Crystals)  -         60  grains. 

BATH :        Borax,     -  -          ^  oz. 

Water,         -  20  oz. 

Wash  i  hour  in  running  cold  water  or  in  16  changes  of  cold  water,  when 
prints  may  be  mounted  same  as  albumen  prints. 

The  combined  bath  must  be  used  cold,  not  above  50'  Fahr.  This  condition 
can  be  obtained  by  placing  a  piece  of  ice  in  the  bath  when  toning.  If  the  bath  is 
too  warm,  it  will  cause  yellow  prints  with  a  greenish  cast  in  the  half  tones. 

Use  a  Thermometer  and  keep  it  in  toning  bath  all  the  time. 

The  combined  bath  is  an  acid  soulution.  The  borax  neutralizes  only  the 
excess  of  acid  in  the  alum.  Any  attempt  to  neutralize  the  bath  wilf  precipitate 
the  alum. 

The  combined  bath  should  not  be  used  a  second  time. 

Clean  Trays  once  a  week  with  nitric  acid  or  sulphuric  acid  and  water  to 
prevent  white  spots  or  blotches  on  the  prints. 

*Or  double  the  quantity  of  chloride  of  gold  and  sodium. 


s  allowed  to  stand  over  night  in  water  are  liable  to  turn  yellow, 
they  should  be  mounted  as  soon  as  washed. 

GLACE  FINISH. — Clean  the  ferrotype  plate  with  warm  water  each  time  it 
is  used.  Polish  with  a  soft  cloth  until  plate  is  absolutely  free  from  dirt  or  specks 
of  any  description.  Swab  with  a  tuft  of  soft  cloth  or  cotton  batting  wet  with  a 
solution  composed  of  benzine  i  oz.,  paraffin  10  gr.  Rub  dry  with  a  clean  cloth 
.and  polish  with  a  chamois  skin  or  very  soft  cloth.  Use  a  soft  brush  to  remove 
particles  of  dust.  Then  squeegee  the  wet  print  on  to  the  plate  and  rub  down 
with  a  dry  blotter.  The  print  must  be  in  perfect  contact  to  produce  a  uniform 
and  even  surface.  This  can  be  obtained  by  placing  a  piece  of  cotton  or  rubber 
cloth  over  the  print  and  using  a  small  print  roller  to  rub  down. 

MOUNTING. — The  prints  may  be  mounted  •  with  starch  paste  in  the 
ordinary  manner  ;  use  dry  Castile  soap  for  lubricator,  or,  if  it  is  desired  to  mount 
them  with  glace  surface,  the  back  of  the  print  when  nearly  dry  should  be  brushed 
over  with  very  thin  solution  of  pure,  white  glue,  after  being  well  filtered.  Use 
a  camel's  hairbrush.  When  thoroughly  dry  the  print  should  be  stripped  from 
the  ferrotype  plate.  To  mount  moisten  card  with  a  wet  sponge.  Place  print  in 
proper  position  and  rub  down. 

SPOTTING.— The  solution  given  below  will  prevent  the  spotting  ink  from 
rubbing  off  in  the  burnisher,  and  will  give  a  gloss  equal  to  balance  of  print. 

Solution  A,  Alcohol,  i  oz.;  Thymol,  4  gr. 

Solution  B,     -          Water,  i  oz.;  Gelatine,  15  gr.;  A  solution,  i  dr. 

Heat  Solution  B  at  not  over  120°  Fahr.  until  thoroughly  dissolved. 

For  use,  mix  with  the  spotting  brush  Solution  B  with  the  color  and  if  too 
thick  the  brush  may  be  dampened  with  water  or  saliva. 

To  Gut  Gold. — Those  who  desire  to  cut  their  own  gold  can  make  Stock 
Solution  B  as  follows  for  the  combined  bath  : 

Metallic  Gold, -        i  pennyweight. 

Nitric  Acid,      -----  l  dram. 

Muriatic  Acid,      -------        3  drams. 

When  cut  add  water  48  oz.  and  then  add  sufficient  Bi  Carbonate  of  Soda  to 
almost  neutralize,  leaving  the  solution  slightly  ac-id.  Filter,  and  add  384  grains 
Acetate  of  Lead. 


SOLIO  PRICES. 


JANUARY  ist,  1899. 


Size. 


Groe.. 


' 


3K 

x    4>            ... 

2 

.20 

4 

x    5,           .    '    . 

2        " 

2X 

x    3^  Carte  De  V., 

2        " 

.20 

3 

x    4      Mantello, 

2        " 

.20 

*3% 

x    5l/2  Cabinet, 

I         " 

-2C 

4 

x   6,           ... 

.20 

5 

x    7,            ... 

I         '• 

.30 

5 

x    8,           ... 

1         '• 

.30 

5K 

y        73// 

I 

6 

x    8,           ... 

I         " 

6K 

x    8^, 

1 

7 

x    9,           ... 

I         " 

.50 

8 

x  ib, 

1         4< 

.60 

10 

X  12,               ... 

I 

.90 

ii 

x  14,           ... 

! 

1.20 

14 

X  I/,               ... 

i.  So 

20 

x  24,           .        .        .   M  < 

&*.  $1.85    I         " 

3.50 

I.OC 
I.OC 

I-J' 

1.60 


*i.6o 


i«73 

3.00 

1.90 

3.25 

4.00 

4.25 

5.00 

6.50 

1000 

7^0 

13  oo 

a  so 

20.00 

0.50 

40.00 

Cabinet  Seconds,  $MO  per  gross. 

4x5  mmed),     i.oo 

10  yd.  Roll,  (26  in.  wide  untrimmed),    $4.50 

10  ft  Roll,  do.    $1.75. 


«;  vd.  Roll,  da    $2.50 


•STANDARD  CABINET  SIZR  -This  size  will  be  furnished  on  all  order,  for" 


no  special  size  is  mentioned. 


SOLIO  SUPPLIES. 


Concentrated  toning  and  fixing  solution. 

8  Oz.  Bottle  of  Solution,  k    W    I    u  r   i 

*    M   i    H  r»al   Bottle  of  ****JE 


Solio  Hardener 


8  Oz.  Bottle  of  Solution, 
Powder  to  make  16  oz.  of  Solution 


$    Sa   j 
40 


GaL  Bott>e  of  Solution, 


$500 


11  75 


EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

London,  Paris,  Berlin. 


Rochester,  N.  Y. 


THE 


Photographic  Instructor, 


FOR  THE 


PROFESSIONAL  AND  AMATEUR, 

BEING  THE  COMPREHENSIVE  SERIES  OF  PRACTICAL  LESSONS  ISSUED  TO  THE 
STUDENTS  OF  THE  CHAUTAUQUA  SCHOOL  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY, 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED,       i  * 

-re.    A<('' 

EDITED   BY  **  ' 

W.    I.    LINCOLN    ADAMS, 

II 

Editor  of  the  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TIMES. 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX  ON  THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CHEMICALS 
AND  SUBSTANCES  EMPLOYED  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRACTICE. 

BY 

Prof.   CHARLES   EHRMANN, 

Instructor  of  tht  Chautauqua  School  of  Photography. 


NEW  YORK : 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 
428  BROOME  STREET. 

1888.       '       • 


COPYRIGHT, 

1888. 
BY  THE  SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  autumn  of  1 886  the  authorities  of  the  Chautauqua 
University  recognized  the  growing  demand  for  photographic 
knowledge  by  establishing  a  school  of  photography  in  accord- 
ance with  Chautauqua  ideas  and  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
great  university. 

Prof.  Charles  Ehrmann  was  chosen  the  instructor  of  the 
school,  and  The  Photographic  Times  its  organ.  Practical  in- 
struction was  given  during  the  assembly  season,  the  following 
summer,  at  the  Chautauqua  grounds,  and  corresponding  classes 
were  formed  which  regularly  received  the  printed  lessons  by 
mail,  and  the  written  criticism  of  work  sent  to  Prof.  Ehrmann 
for  that  purpose,  with  his  advice  and  suggestions,  supplemen- 
tary to  the  printed  lessons,  as  the  peculiar  needs  of  individual 
students  seemed  to  require.  Provision  was  made  for  answer- 
ing all  questions  of  the  students,  by  number,  in  a  department 
devoted  to  that  purpose  in  the  The  Photographic  Times,  and 
the  school  rapidly  grew  in  numbers,  influence,  and  usefulness. 
It  has  now  become  an  important  department  of  the  great 
Chautauqua  University,  with  representatives  from  nearly  every 
State  in  the  Union,  with  a  few  even  from  abroad,  and  a  repu- 
tation which  has  extended  to  countries  beyond  the  sea. 

Local  classes  for  practical  instruction  at  the  school's  head- 
quarters, New  York,  during  the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring, 
have  recently  been  started,  and  with  entire  success ;  so  that 
now,  personal,  oral,  and  demonstrative  teaching  is  given  by 
the  instructor  of  the  school  during  the  four  seasons  of  the 
year,  besides  the  written  and  printed  instruction  which  is 


309255 


^4  I 
PREFACE. 


mailed  to  a  much  larger  number  during  the  entire  twelve 
months.  It  was  the  great  practical  value  of  these  printed 
lessons,  written  as  they  were  by  authorities  on  the  various  sub- 
jects of  which  they  treated,  that  suggested  the  advisability  of 
issuing  them  in  the  permanent  and  convenient  form  whicli 
their  usefulness  seemed  so  justly  to  deserve. 

Carefully  revised,  rearranged,  and  enlarged,  they  have,  there- 
fore, been  herein  collected,  with  an  appendix  added,  on  the 
nature  and  use  of  the  various  chemicals  and  substances  em- 
ployed in  photographic  practice,  by  Prof.  Ehrmann,  and  some 
tables,  with  other  photographic  information  taken  from  "  The 
American  Annual  of  Photography  and  the  Photographic 
Times  Almanac."  To  Prof.  Ehrmann  is  also  due  the  credit 
for  contributing  most  of  the  lessons  in  this  book,  for  he 
originally  wrote  the  greatest  part  of  them. 

Mr.  Charles  Wager- Hull,  Superintendent  of  the  School, 
wrote  several  of  the  lessons  which  form  the  opening  chapters ; 
while  Prof.  Kandall  Spaulding,  of  the  Montclair  High  School; 
Prof.  Karl  Klauser,  of  Farmington,  Conn.;  Mr.  John  Carbutt, 
the  dry-plate  maker  of  Philadelphia ;  Mr.  O.  G.  Mason,  of 
Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York;  and  Dr.  Maurice  N.  Miller, 
of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  deserve  the  thanks 
of  the  reader  for  the  remaining  lessons,  not  written  by 

The  Editor  of  The  Photographic  Times. 
EDITORIAL  ROOMS,  NEW  YORK  CITY,  JUNE,  1888. 


\ 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE, 

INTRODUCTION,  ...        -      7 

LESSON  I. 
APPARATUS,     -        - 11 

LESSON  II. 
MANAGEMENT  OF  APPARATUS  IN  THE  FIELD,  -  16 

LESSON  III. 
THE  DARK-ROOM, -  -  21 

LESSON  IV. 
EXPOSING,  -  -  28 

LESSON  V. 
DEVELOPING,  ----------  .-33 

LESSON  VI. 

FIXING,  WASHING,  VARNISHING,  INTENSIFYING  AND  REDUCING,  -       -    39 

LESSON  VII. 
PRINTING  ON  ALBUMENIZED  PAPER, 44 

LESSON  VIII. 
PRINTING  ON  VARIOUS  OTHER  PAPERS, 53 

LESSON  IX. 
PRINTING  ON  PERMANENT  BROMIDE  PAPER, 63 

LESSON  X. 
ARTISTIC  PRINTING, ,_71 

LESSON  XI. 
TRIMMING  AND  MOUNTING  THE  PRINTS, -  76 


6  CONTENTS. 

LESSON  XII. 
SPOTTING  AND  BURNISHING  THE  PRINTS, 81 

LESSON  XIII. 
PORTRAITURE, 87 

LESSON  XIV. 
RETOUCHING  THE  NEGATIVE, 96 

LESSON  XV. 
PHOTOGRAPHING  INTERIORS  AND  INANIMATE  OBJECTS,       -        -        -    103 

LESSON  XVI. 
COPYING,  ENLARGING  AND  REDUCING, 108 

LESSON  XVII. 
ORTHOCHROMATIC,  OR  COLOR-SENSITIVE  PHOTOGRAPHY,   -        -        -113 

LESSON  XVIII. 
TRANSPARENCIES,  AND  How  TO  MAKE  THEM, 119 

LESSON  XIX. 
LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY, -        -    12ft 

LESSON  XX. 
STEREOSCOPIC  PHOTOGRAPHY, t34 

LESSON  XXI. 
LIGHT  AND  LENSES, 137 

LESSON  XXII. 

PHOTO-MlCROGRAPHY, 146 

LESSON  XXIII. 
PHOTOGRAPHING  BY  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT, 151 

LESSON  XXIV. 
EMULSION  MAKING,       - 155 


APPENDIX  ON  THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CHEMICALS 

AND  SUBSTANCES  EMPLOYED  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRACTICE,         -    163 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  series  of  lessons  which  follow  this,  are  written  more 
especially  for  those  who  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  charming 
art  of  photography,  yet  who  desire  to  be  taught  its  mysteries 
by  easy,  simple  methods,  leaving  for  later  study  the  whys  and 
the  wherefores,  the  chemistry  and  the  science.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  amateur  and  the  beginner  is  far  too  much 
inclined  at  first  to  ask  questions  that  later  on  might  be  well 
and  proper  enough  ;  too  apt  to  become  an  experimenter  while 
yet  a  tyro  ;  too  likely  to  fill  his  notebook  and  his  head  with 
conflicting  theories  and  formulae ;  not  patient  enough  under 
simple  instruction,  and  too  anxious  to  do  everything  at  once. 
These  rarely  succeed ;  success  attends  those  who  move  only 
so  fast  as  they  learn  and  understand. 

To  become  even  moderately  successful,  photography  de- 
mands of  its  votaries  certain  characteristics,  a  few  of  which  it 
is  proper  the  beginner  should  know  of  and  appreciate,  for 
upon  them  success  depends. 

PATIENCE. — Photography  being  based  upon  chemical  con- 
ditions and  changes,  moves  only  just  so  fast ;  it  cannot  be  hur- 
ried. You  cannot  make  a  better  picture  by  using  a  stronger 
developer,  thus  gaining  time  by  "  hurrying  things  up ;"  it  is 
not  like  driving  a  nail  or  sawing  a  stick  of  wood.  Patience  to 
wait  for  the  right  time  of  day  and  the  right  kind  of  light ; 
patience  to  look  your  subject  all  over,  to  study  it,  and  find 
the  most  pleasing  point  of  view.  The  resulting  picture  will 
then  satisfy  you,  and  your  labor  will  be  rewarded.  We  all 
know  of  amateurs  who  should  have  painted  on  their  cameras, 
"  wholesale  only,"  for  they  care  not  half  so  much  for  quality 
as  they  do  for  quantity ;  they  can  make  more  pictures  in  a 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

day  than  a  painstaking,  good  working  photographer  can  make 
in  a  week,  but  not  one  in  a  dozen  is  worth  the  cost  of  the  soda 
contained  in  the  developer. 

This  kind  of  a  photographer  reminds  one  of  the  boy  who 
busies  himself  on  the  Fourth  of  July  by  blazing  away  from 
a  revolver,  and  measures  his  patriotism  by  the  number  of 
shots  he  fired. 

ORDER. — This  is  an  absolute  requirement.  When  it  is  un- 
derstood that  each  chemical  is  used  to  produce  a  certain  effect 
when  brought  into  relation  with  another  chemical,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  bringing  together  of  chemicals  at  the  wrong  time,  or 
in  the  wrong  order,  must  destroy  the  work  in  hand.  If,  as  is 
constantly  the  case,  various  operations  are  going  along ^at  the 
same  time,  the  greatest  care  must  be  used,  by  continually  wip- 
ing the  fingers,  etc.,  that  those  solutions  which  should  be  kept 
apart  are  so  kept.  Faith  in  your  own  efforts  is  essential  to 
success ;  not  that  the  methods  of  instruction  or  the  formulae 
to  be  given  are  any  better  than  others  but  that  they  will  en- 
able the  student  to  make  as  good  a  photograph  as  any  one  can 
make. 

Follow  closely  and  exactly  everything  that  you  are  instructed 
to  do  and  under  no  circumstances  adopt  or  attempt  changes ; 
when  all  has  been  done  as  directed,  the  course  is  finished,  and 
good  work  made ;  then,  and  not  until  then,  plunge  into  the 
boundless  field  of  theory  and  experiment,  and  good  may  come 
of  it. 

Those  who  think  they  know  it  all,  or  know  somebody  who 
does ;  who  are  not  willing  to  follow  as  herein  directed,  will 
do  justice  neither  to  themselves  or  to  the  teacher.  Last,  and 
by  no  means  the  least  important  requirement  is  that  those 
who  propose  to  learn  the  art  of  photography  must  love  it. 

BENEFITS. — Hidden  here  and  there  along  every  roadside, 
every  mountain  stream,  every  bit  of  woodland,  everywhere,  in- 
deed, are  beauties  not  seen  by  the  uneducated  eye  ;  but  pick  up 
your  camera  on  a  fine  bright  morning,  leisurely  stroll  along, 
and  you  will  find  new  beauties  at  every  turn  ;  the  more  familiar 
you  become  with  nature's  beauties,  the  more  familiar  nature 
will  become  to  you ;  you  will  see  what  you  never  saw  before, 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

for  the  reason  that  you  never  observed  before,  you  never  be- 
fore searched  for  her  beauties ;  now  that  you  know  of  them, 
you  can  never  find  the  end.  Pages  might  be  written  on  this 
benefit  alone  ;  it  is  worth  far  more  than  any  cost  to  acquire  it. 

Another  of  the  chiefest  charms  of  photography  is  its  unsel- 
fishness ;  the  pictures  made  on  a  morning  ramble  are  not  alone 
enjoyed  by  the  maker,  but  enjoyed  as  well  by  all  his  (or  her) 
friends ;  and  this  cannot  be  said  of  all  the  ordinary  pastimes 
of  our  time." 

Be  patient  and  persevering  ;  maintain  absolute  order  and 
cleanliness  in  dark-room  and  afield  ;  and  adhere  to  one  line  of 
the  subject  until  it  is  mastered,  before  branching  out  and  ex- 
perimenting here  and  there.  The  result  will  be  a  practical 
skill  in  the  making  of  good  photographs,  and  an  educated 
eye  to  see,  depict,  and  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature  alone  and 
with  your  friends. 


The  Photographic  Instructor. 


LESSON  I. 
APPARATUS. 

IN  photography,  as  in  all  other  industrial  and  artistic  pur- 
suits, certain  apparatus,  or  tools,  are  needed  to  produce  a 
picture ;  some  you  can  buy ;  others,  with  but  little  labor  and 
ingenuity,  you  can  make.  This  lesson  is  written  to  inform  you 
of  those  tools  which  you  must  have,  and  leaves  to  your  own 
judgment  the  purchase  of  those  which,  though  not  absolutely 
necessary,  are,  nevertheless,  of  considerable  comfort  in  carrying 
forward  the  various  operations  through  which  you  are  to  be  led. 

The  first  group  of  essentials  are,  of  course,  the  camera  and 
plate-holder,  the  lens,  the  tripod,  the  cloth  to  be  used  when 
examining  the  image  cast  upon  the  ground-glass  by  the  lens, 
and  the  focusing-glass. 

Cameras  vary  greatly  in  their  design,  and  in  the  means 
adopted  to  produce  certain  necessary  conditions.  They  should 
be  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  the  work  they  have  to  do,  but 
not  so  light  as  to  be  liable  to  injury  from  the  accidental  blows 
they  are  almost  certain  to  receive  in  out-of-door  work. 

Cost  is  too  often  held  to  be  the  first  consideration  ;  but  good 
workmanship  and  simplicity  is  of  greater  value  to  the  amateur 
than  the  few  dollars  difference  in  price. 


12  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

For  all  the  uses  for  which  they  are  intended,  the  "  Favorite 
and  "  Waterbury  "  cameras  meet  every  requirement. 


THE  "WATERBURY"  CAMERA. 

The  first-named  of  these  cameras  is  made  of  light  walnut, 
and  the  latter  of  mahogany.  Ihey  have  rubber  bellows,  fold- 
ing platform,  single  swing,  vertical  shifting  front,  record  slides 
and  side  latch  for  holding  the  platform  rigid.  The  two  feat- 
ures last  named  are  especially  desirable.  They  are  as  light  and 
compact  as  substantial  cameras  can  be  constructed.  The  sizes 
made  of  this  style  are  for  pictures  4  inches  by  5  inches ; 
5  inches  by  8  inches,  and  6£  inches  by  8-|  inches.  These, 
with  rare  exceptions,  are  the  sizes  used  by  amateurs  and  most 
beginners. 

To  those  readers  who  know  nothing  about  cameras,  it  is 
well  to  explain  the  certain  parts  named,  and  their  uses.  The 
bellows  is  that  part  between  the  front  and  back  of  camera, 
made  to  allow  them  to  be  moved  together  or  apart,  as  may  be 
required  in  adjusting  the  focus,  or  the  making  sharp  and 
distinct  of  the  image  on  the  ground-glass.  The  ground-glass 
is  that  part  which  in  the  cut  is  represented  as  falling  back,  and 
in  the  place  of  which,  as  will  be  described  later  on,  the  holder 
containing  the  sensitive  plate  is  secured. 

The  single  swing  is  that  part  of  the  camera  to  which  the 
ground-glass  is  attached  ;  it  is  an  adjustable  arrangement  held 
in  place  by  a  thumb-screw,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  may  be 
tilted  to  the  front  or  to  the  rear,  or  may  be  placed  vertically. 
Its  uses  are  many :  it  serves  to  equalize  the  focus,  and  by 
proper  use  the  foreground  containing  the  near  objects  in  a  pic- 


APPARATUS. 


13 


ture  is  made  clear   and    distinct,  or,    as   photographers   say, 
"  sharp." 

The  vertical  shifting  front  of  the  camera  is  that  part  on  which 
the  word  "Scovill"  is  seen;  it  may  be  elevated  or  lowered  at 
will,  and  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  a  thumb  screw.  On  this  front 
the  lens  is  placed ;  by  lowering  it,  more  foreground  is  brought 
into  the  picture ;  by  elevating  or  raising,  less  foreground. 

The  side-latch  for  holding  the  platform  rigid,  is  the  bolt  seen 
on  the  platform  or  bed-piece,  and  holds  rigidly  the  folding  plat- 
form. 

The  platform  folds  up  against  the  back  of  the  camera,  when 
the  back  has  been  pushed  forward  until  it  meets  the  front. 

This  simple  and  effective  arrangement  not  alone  renders  the 
camera  more  portable,  by  reducing  its  size,  but  as  well  protects 
the  bellows  from  injury  during  transportation. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  production  of  the 
photographic  picture  is  the  lens,  of  which,  as  in  case  of  the  cam- 
era, there  is  an  end- 
less variety.  Fortu- 
nately for  the  begin- 
ner of  limited  means, 
the  improvement  in 
lenses  places  within 
the  reach  of  all,  good 
lenses  for  very  little 
money.  Nothing  can 
surpass,  for  all  the 
ordinary  views  of 
still  life,  the  "Water- 
bury"  .lens.  It  is 
moderate  in  price,  and,  for  the  purpose  stated,  meets  every 
requirement.  It  has  good  depth  of  focus  (by  which  is  meant 
that  objects  nearby  and  distant  are  both  clearly  defined),  covers 
a  good  field,  or  breadth  of  subject,  and  works  with  fair  rapidity. 
With  it  mostjexcellent  landscapes  and  groups  can  be  made  in 
a  very  few  seconds ;  but  to  those  who  wish  to  include  in  their 
work  pictures  of  moving  objects,  the  more  expensive  lenses 
must  be  employed,  of  which  the  Morrison,  the  Wale,  and  the 
Gundlach  lenses  are  representative  types. 


THE  "  WATERBURY  "  LENS  AND  DIAPHRAGMS. 


14:  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

The  tripod  is  the  stand  on  which  the  camera  is  placed  ;  it  is 
adjustable,  and  must  be  made  of  well-seasoned  wood.  When 
not  in  use  it  is  folded  into  compact  form,  placed  in  a  bag,  and 
is  easily  carried  in  the  hand.  One  of  the  best  forms  made  is 
that  known  as  the  Scovill  Adjustable  Tripod. 

The  extension  tripod  possesses,  also,  special  advantages.  It 
can  be  set  up  ready  for  use  quicker  than  any  other,  and  with 
less  trouble.  When  placed  on  uneven  ground,  the  camera  it 


SCOVILL  EXTENSION  TRIPOD. 

supports  may  be  brought  to  the  proper  level  by  simply  adjust- 
ing the  length  of  the  legs,  and  it  has  no  detachable  parts  to  be 
misplaced  or  lost.  Without  this  tripod,  valuable  time  is  often 
wasted,  or  opportune  moments  lost  in  placing  the  tripod  legs, 
and  changing  their  position,  to  include  just  what  is  wanted  in 
a  picture,  and  to  level  the  camera. 

]$Text  in  the  order  of  essentials  are  the  focussing  cloth 
and  the  focussing  glass. 

The  cloth  should  be  about  one  yard  square,  of  some  dark 
material,  and  impervious  to  light ;  such  material  can  easily  be 
found  in  any  home.  Many  prefer  a  cloth  made  of  some  water- 
proof material ;  this  has  the  two-fold  advantage  of  excluding 
light,  and,  in  case  of  a  shower,  protecting  the  camera  from  the 
rain. 


APPARATUS. 


15 


SCOVILL  FOCUSING  GLASS. 


This  desirable  little  instrument  is  intended  to  aid  the  pho- 
tographer in  securing  a  sharply  defined  picture  on  the  ground- 
glass.  To  most  people  it  is  indispens- 
able ;  the  image  on  the  glass  being 
small  and  reversed,  is  at  times  some- 
what difficult  to  determine  as  to  exact 
sharpness. 

The  dry-plate  holder  (each  holding 
two  plates)  which  the  next  cut  repre- 
sents, is  a  device  for  holding  the  sensi- 
tive plate,  guarding  it  from  light,  and 
is  so  constructed  as  to  be  secured  upon 
the  back  of  the  camera,  in  the  place 
occupied  by  the  ground-glass,  with  slides  to  be  withdrawn  when 
so  placed  that  the  image 
which  was  thrown  upon 
the  ground-glass  may  then 
be  thrown  upon  the  face 
of  the  plate  which  is  con- 
cealed in  the  holder. 

The  position  of  the  face 
of  the  plate  is  exactly  that  first  occupied  by  the  ground-glass ; 
thus,  whatever  was  seen  upon  it  must  now  be  thrown  upon  the 
plate.  If  the  image  was  "  sharp  "  (a  photographic  term  for 
clearly  defined)  on  the  one,  so  it  must  also  be  on  the  other. 

Of  these  holders  as  many  are  carried  into  the  field  as,  in  the 
photographer's  opinion  he  will  need  for  the  work  he  has  be- 
fore him. 

The  articles  named — camera,  lens,  tripod,  focusing  cloth, 
focusing  glass,  and  plate-holders — comprise  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  be  carried  into  the  field,  neatly  packed,  as  they 
should  be,  in  proper  cases.  This,  at  least  so  far  as  the  hold- 
ers are  concerned,  should  never  be  neglected,  for  as  little  ex- 
posure of  them  as  possible  to  light  should  ever  be  the  rule  of 
the  careful  photographer. 


The  next  lesson  will  describe  the 
articles  which  are  described  in  this. 


methods  for  using  the 


LESSON  II. 
MANAGEMENT  OF  APPARATUS  IN  THE  FIELD. 

IN  the  previous  lesson  effort  was  made  to  fully  describe  the 
apparatus  required. 

Now  let  us  suppose  that  we  have  the  camera,  with  its  lens 
in  place  in  the  center  of  the  sliding  front  where  the  word 
"  Scovill "  appears,  the  flange  of  which  has  been  neatly  fitted 
and  firmly  fastened  with  small  screws ;  the  tripod,  the  focus- 
ing cloth,  and  the  focussing  glass.  For  the  present  we  will 
leave  the  plate-holder  behind.  Picking  up  the  articles  named, 
let  us  step  out  upon  the  lawn,  taking  position  so  that  the 
sun  will  be  a  little  to  one  side,  and  behind  us.  We  can 
hardly  expect  to  secure  a  good  picture  with  the  sun  or 
strongest  light  directly  in  front  of  us,  neither  can  wre  look  for 
good  effects  of  light  and  shade  (and  both  are  needed)  if  the 
light  be  either  immediately  over  head  or  directly  behind  us. 
More,  far  more,  depends  upon  the  proper  selection  of  the  point 
of  view  and  the  direction  of  the  light  than  many  suppose. 
There  is  a  proper  time  of  day  ;  a  proper  direction  from  which 
the  light  should  come  for  every  landscape ;  a  time  when  the 
shadows  will  so  fall  as  to  give  the  proper  effect,  for  from  the 
shadows  in  their  relations  to  the  strong  or  high  lights,  do  we 
get,  when  properly  contrasted,  the  harmonious  effect  of  the 
whole.  Let  us  place  our  camera  here.  Before  us  lies  a  view 
combining  conditions  which  will  teach  us  the  use  of  our  lens 
with  its  diaphragms.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  choose 
the  best  point  of  view.  In  choosing  this  we  are  governed  by 
the  following  considerations  :  The  sun  is  to  our  back  and  to 
the  right ;  in  the  immediate  foreground  we  have  a  large  rustic 
seat ;  further  along  and  to  the  left  is  a  rustic  bower  covered 
with  vines ;  in  the  middle  foreground  a  small  pool  of  water, 


MANAGEMENT    OF    APPARATUS    IN    THE    FIELD.  17 

still  and  glassy  as  a  mirror,  with  several  small  willows  beauti- 
fully reflected  from  within  it ;  further  on  to  the  left  a  magni- 
ficent cluster  of  large  trees  ;  beyond,  in  the  distance,  and  a  little 
to  the  right,  is  a  pretty  villa,  and  not  so  thickly  surrounded 
with  trees  as  to  obscure  its  architectural  beauties ;  in  front  of 
it  a  lawn  stretches  down  to  the  little  pool  that  is  situated,  as 
mentioned,  in  the  middle  foreground.  The  light,  coming  from 
the  direction  stated,  falls  in  such  a  way  as  to  penetrate  well 
into  the  large  forest  trees,  casting  the  shadows  of  the  others 
aslant  the  lawn,  and  bringing  the  projecting  angles  of  the  villa 
into  bold  relief.  This  effect  of  relief — the  bold  standing  out 
from  a  flat  surface — is  nowhere  better  seen  than  in  a  well- 
painted  sign ;  proper  shading,  at  a  proper  angle  gives  to  the 
letters  every  appearance  of  being  solid,  raised  from  the  surface. 
From  this,  it  must  be  plain  to  all  that  the  proper  relief  can 
only  be  produced  by.  proper  shading,  proper  kind  of  shadows; 
these  it  must  now  be  seen,  cannot  be  had  to  good  effect  when 
the  light,  as  before  stated,  is  either  immediately  over  head  or 
directly  in  front  or  behind. 

Having  selected  our  point  of  view,  place  the  tripod  firmly 
upon  the  ground,  and  upon  it  fix  the  camera,  passing 
through  the  head  of  the  tripod  the  thumb-screw  which  secures 
the  camera  to  it,  only  setting  up  the  screw  tight  enough  to 
hold  the  camera  in  place,  and  allowing  it  to  be  turned  from 
side  to  side  as  may  later  on  be  required.  This  done,  see  that 
the  camera  is  level,  look  at  it  from  all  sides  ;  this  is  an  all-im- 
portant step,  especially  when  an  architectural  object  forms  part 
of  the  picture. 

The  tripod  resting  firmly,  the  camera  being  level,  next  re- 
move the  cap  from  the  front  of  the  lens  and  place  the  focusing 
cloth  over  all  excepting  the  front  of  the  lens.  With  the  lens 
there  should  be  diaphragms.  Of  these  there  are  several ;  they 
are  flat,  thin  pieces  of  blackened  metal,  with  holes  of  various 
sizes  in  their  center ;  they  are  also  known  as  "  stops,"  and  are 
frequently  spoken  of  as  "openings."  In  focusing,  which  is 
soon  to  follow,  we  shall  use  the  largest  opening  or  stop,  for  the 
reason  that  the  image  is  brighter  on  the  ground-glass,  due  to 
the  letting  in  of  more  light  than  could  be  admitted  through 


18  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

the  smaller  stops.  Having  arranged  the  stop  as  suggested,  and 
having  removed  the  cap  from  front  of  the  lens,  next  step  to  the 
rear,  raise  the  cloth,  and  place  it  over  your  head. 

What  do  you  see  ?  Nothing,  unless  you  have  used  a  camera 
before.  You  would  scarcely  have  thought  so ;  but  there  is  quite 
a  "  knack"  in  finding  the  image  on  the  ground-glass.  You  are 
probably  too  near.  Raise  the  cloth  a  little  and  draw  your 
head  slowly  back,  the  image  will  soon  appear.  Now  close  the 
cloth  tightly,  so  as  to  exclude  all  the  light,  moving  to  or  from 
the  glass,  until  you  have  the  proper  focus  for  your  eye.  Next 
loosen  the  thumb-screw  that  holds  the  movable  part  of  the 
camera,  so  that  by  slowly  and  steadily  moving  the  ground-glass 
to  or  from  you,  you  obtain  a  sharp  image  on  it ;  this  your  focus- 
ing-glass  will  enable  you  to  do  exactly.  In  using,  place  it 
against  the  back  side  of  the  glass  and  your  eye  at  the  lens  in 
the  small  end.  It  may  be  that  the  focusing-glass  does  not  suit 
your  eye ;  it  is  adjustable ;  the  eye-piece  can  be  moved  in  or 
out  as  may  be  required.  Test  it,  however,  by  holding  the 
ground-glass  between  your  eye  and  the  light,  the  ground  side 
from  you,  and  move  the  eye-piece  until  the  glass  on  the  ground 
side  looks  rough  and  distinct,  as  it  will  do  under  proper  condi- 
tions. In  the  landscape  before  us  so  move  your  camera,  by  turn- 
ing to  right  or  to  left  on  the  tripod,  as  to  bring  the  rustic  seat 
into  or  near  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  glass,  and  the 
villa  nearly  to  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  as  you  see  the  in- 
verted image  before  you.  This  upside-down  condition  of 
things  will  confuse  you  at  first,  and  so  will  the  appearing  on 
the  right  of  objects  which  are  on  the  left,  and  those  of  the  left 
on  the  right.  However,  you  will  soon  become  accustomed  to 
this  new  order  of  things.  In  examining  the  image  you  may 
find  that  the  villa  is  not  all  upon  the  plate.  To  bring  it  on, 
raise  the  sliding  front  until  it  is  all  upon  the  plate,  and  a  fail- 
piece  of  sky  as  well.  If  in  doing  this  you  have  not  lost  your 
rustic  seat  in  the  foreground,  all  is  right.  If  you  have,  then 
you  are  too  near  your  objects ;  move  back,  taking  up  a  posi- 
tion that  will  give  you  on  the  ground-glass  all  the  objects 
you  wish  to  have  upon  the  sensitive  plate.  Your  sliding- 
front  will  bring  in  more  foreground  by  lowering,  more  sky 


MANAGEMENT    OF    APPARATUS    IN    THE    FIELD.  19 

by  raising.  Be  sure  to  fasten  it  tightly  when  the  proper  posi- 
tion has  been  found ;  and  fasten  also  the  camera  to  the  tripod 
by  setting  up  the  screw  beneath.  Nothing  has  been  said  as  to 
letting  down  and  making  fast  the  folding  bed.  This,  it  is 
assumed,  has  been  done. 

In  this  picture  you  will  find  no  use  for  the  swing-back ;  in- 
deed, it  is  not  often  required  for  field  work ;  when  you  are  so 
placed  as  to  have  an  object  immediately  in  the  foreground,  so 
near  that  you  are  unable  to  obtain  sharpness,  you  may  use  the 
swing-back  to  advantage.  In  this  case,  set  back  the  top  which 
lengthens  the  foreground  focus,  so  that  the  whole  may  be 
equalized.  When  not  in  use,  be  careful  to  have  it  firmly  fixed 
at  right  angles  to  the  bed  or  platform. 

Now  focus  the  image  which  has  been  arranged  upon  the 
glass.  Choose  some  object  in  the  middle  foreground,  the  bark 
of  a  tree,  a  cluster  of  rocks  that  are  moss- covered,  any  object, 
in  short,  on  which,  by  aid  of  your  glass,  you  can  sharply  focus. 
This  done,  examine  the  rustic  seat  in  the  near  foreground,  and 
the  villa  in  the  right  distance  ;  both  are  beyond  doubt  lacking 
in  sharpness  ;  now  is  the  time  to  see  what  the  stops  will  do. 
See  if  by  using  the  next  smallest  stop  sharpness  is  obtained ; 
if  not,  the  next,  until  all  parts  of  the  image  are  sharp ;  this, 
within  fairly  reasonable  bounds,  providing  the  lens  is  suited  to 
the  size  of  plate  in  use,  can  be  had ;  but,  as  you  have  seen,  at 
a  great  sacrifice  of  light ;  which,  however,  we  cannot  avoid. 
In  using  the  stops  or  diaphragms,  always  use  the  one  with  the 
largest  opening  that  will  give  you  the  desired  definition  or 
sharpness ;  this  for  two  reasons :  you  get  more  light  on  the 
plate,  thus  making  your  picture  in  a  shorter  time ;  and  you 
get  a  more  crisp,  brilliant,  and  pleasing  result.  Before  the 
camera  has  been  long  in  use,  the  careful  student  will  find 
that  the  nearer  an  object  is,  the  further  apart  will  be  his  lens 
and  his  ground-glass  when  he  makes  sharp  the  image,  and 
closer  together  when  the  object  is  at  a  greater  distance. 
He  will  also  have  observed  that  when  the  focus  has  been 
found  for  an  object  75  to  100  feet  away,  and  the  proper 
stop  has  been  used,  that  all  beyond  that  distance  is  equally 
sharp.  Knowing  this,  a  mark  on  the  folding  bed  is  made,  and 


%0  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

all  pictures  within  certain  distances,  can  be  made  without 
using  the  ground-glass ;  the  ground-glass  is  placed  at  the  marked 
spot,  and  the  photographer  goes  ahead  with  certainty  of  suc- 
cess. Were  it  not  so,  the  beautiful  pictures  of  moving  objects 
could  not  be  made ;  to  locate  them  on  the  plate,  a  little  instru- 
ment is  placed  upon  the  camera,  termed  a  tinder.  Of  this, 
and  its  uses,  however,  more  will  be  said  when  the  methods  of 
making  instantaneous  pictures  are  described. 


LESSON  III. 
THE  DARK-ROOM. 

IN  some  part  of  your  house  a  closet  can  be  found  with  a 
tight-fitting  door  which  will  meet  all  your  wants ;  the  larger 
the  better,  for  your  ruby  light  and  your  breath  will  very  soon 
destroy  all  the  air  for  breathing  purposes.  If  you  can,  build 
a  room  in  some  part  of  your  house,  and  when  building  pro- 
vide for  proper  ventilation ;  it  will  well  repay  the  little  cost 
of  the  few  boards  needed.  Make  it  six  feet  wide,  ten  feet 
high,  and  twelve  feet  long.  Ventilate  it  by  having  made  at 
the  tinsmith's  four  tubes  shaped  like  the  letter  U,  one  end 
one-half  the  length  of  the  other.  On  the  long  end  have  a 
flange.  Cut  two  holes  in  the  wall  of  the  room  at  the  bottom 
and  two  at  the  top,  the  size  of  the  inside  of  the  tube,  and  nail 
the  tube  by  the  flange  to  the  wall  so  as  to  cover  these  holes  ; 
the  tubes  should  be  a  foot  one  way  by  six  inches  the  other  in 
the  clear ;  paint  them  inside  and  out  a  dark,  dead  color  to  pre- 
vent reflections  of  light. 

This  simple  and  inexpensive  method  will  add  to  your  com- 
fort on  hot  days,  and  help  to  keep  the  air  of  your  dark-room 
pure.  Locate  the  door  of  the  room  at  one  end,  or  as  near  one 
«nd  as  possible,  using  the  end  farthest  from  the  door  for 
changing  and  developing  plates.  Construct  around  the  room  a 
wide  shelf  at  such  a  height  that,  when  sitting  on  a  chair,  your 
knees  will  pass  comfortably  under  it ;  on  this  shelf,  at  the  side, 
you  can  place  the  plate-holders  when  you  wish  to  fill  them  ;  at 
the  end  you  will  have  room  for  your  developing  operations. 

Make  other  shelves  above  as  you  may  wish  them,  on 
which  to  place  your  "  traps  "  and  store  your  negatives.  If 
running  water  can  be  had  in  the  room  you  will  be  most  for- 
tunate. It  is  assumed  that  you  are  not  so  fortunate.  At  the 


22  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

end  of  the  room  where  developing  is  to  be  done,  first  settle 
upon  the  spot  where  you  are  to  place  your  ruby  lantern,  by  the 
light  of  which  all  your  work  is  now  to  be  done.  Of  these 
there  are  many  kinds  ;  the  cut  represents  one  that  is  inexpen- 
sive and  reliable.  Should  you  want  a  larger  one,  it  is  easily 
found.*  In  front  of  this  place  an  ordinary 
heavy  sheet  iron  pan,  such  as  is  used; 
for  baking,  measuring  about  sixteen  inches 
by  ten  inches  wide ;  this  is  to  constitute 
your  sink,  over  which  developing  is  to  be 
done,  and  it  should  be  two  or  three  inches 
deep.  In  the  bottom  of  this  pan  have  a 
piece  of  lead  pipe  soldered  to  carry  the 
water  entering  it  to  a  pail  underneath  the 
shelf.  In  this  pan  construct  and  adjust  a 

TXT    T     A      RTT"RV  T  TPT-TT 

PORTABLE  LANTERN,  wooden  frame  of  four  strips  of  wood,  on 
which  your  developing  tray  can  rest  clear  of  any  dirty  sedi- 
ment that  may  collect  in  the  bottom  of  your  little  sink.  Next 
construct  a  shelf  on  your  left,  and  within  handy  reach  without 
leaving  your  seat ;  on  this  set  a  pail,  which  is  to  hold  your 
supply  of  clean  water.  Put  in  this  pail  a  stop-cock,  and  over 
the  cock  slip  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  long  enough  to  reach  to 
the  developing  tray  over  your  sink  when  in  position  in  front 
of  your  ruby  lantern. 

Have  the  pail  in  which  the  clean  water  is  kept  a  little 
smaller  than  the  one  into  which  the  overflow  passes;  this  pre- 
caution may  prevent  marring  the  ceiling  below  you. 

Sitting  down  to  your  work  may  be  thought  a  lazy  way  of 
doing  things;  it  is  comfortable,  nevertheless.  Having  ar- 
ranged our  room  for  its  uses,  let  us  now  see  what  is  needed  to- 
do  our  work.  Of  chemicals  we  require  sulphite  of  soda  in 
crystals,  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  pyrogallic  acidr 
carbonate  of  potash,  alum,  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  a  bottle 
of  varnish ;  also  a  pair  of  scales  fine  enough  to  weigh  grains. 
For  weighing  more  than  an  ounce  the  ordinary  house  scales, 
if  good  ones,  will  answer.  If  you  buy  the  developer  already 
mixed  you  will  not  require  scales,  nor  will  you  need  either  of 
the  first  four  named  chemicals.  To  mix  your  own  developer  is 

*  The  W.  I.  A.  petite  lantern  is  excellent,  being  an  improved  form  of 
the  original  W.  I.  A. — EDITOR. 


THE    DARK-ROOM. 


23 


scarcely  cheaper,  but  it  is  better  for  a  beginner,  for  it  acquaints 
him  with  what  he  is  to  use.  After  becoming  perfectly  familiar 
with  the  developing  solutions,  their  constitution  and  use,  you 
may  save  time  and  trouble,  if  not,  indeed,  some  expense,  by 
buying  the  developer  ready  prepared. 

You  will  require  four  glass  graduates,  one  each  of  eight, 
four,  and  two  ounces,  marked  with  drams,  and  a  minim  glass 
to  measure  drops. 


SCOVILL  GLASS  GRADUATE. 

Three  trays  or  agate  iron  pans  must  be  had,  one  for  devel- 
oping, one  for  the  alum  solution,  one  for  the  hyposulphite  or 
fixing  solution,  each  to  be  kept  for  its  own  use,  and  on  no 
account  to  be  ever  used  for  anything  else. 

For  developing  use  the  shallow  pan ;  the  others  should  be 
the  deep  style,  being  always  the  size  next  larger  than  the  size 
of  plate  you  use.  For  the  alum  and  the  hyposulphite  of  soda 
it  would  be  better  to  employ  the  second  size  larger. 


AGATE  IRON  PAN. 
Agate  iron  pans  with  pouring  lip,  the  following  sizes  are 


24 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


supplied,  either  shallow  or  deep:  5  by  T,  7  by  9,  8  by  10, 
10  by  13,  11  by  14,  14  by  17,  15  by  19,  and  19  by  24. 

A  couple  of  funnels  and  a  glass  mortar  you  may  be  able  to 
dispense  with,  though  to  have  them  will  add  to  the  ease  of 
working. 


AGATE  IRON  CORRUGATED  FUNNEL.         GLASS  MORTAR  AND  PESTLE. 

If  about  the  house  you  have  running  water,  by  all  means  get 
a  negative  washing-box,  attach  a  rubber  tube  to  the  opening 
in  the  lower  left-hand  side,  as  shown  in  the  cut  below,  and  the 
other  end  of  the  tube  slip  over  the  faucet  of  the  wash  basin, 
thus  allowing  a  stream  of  water  to  pass  into  the  box,  around 
the  plates  as  they  stand  on  edge  in  the  grooves  and  overflow  at 
the  opening  on  the  right  hand. 


SCOVILL  NEGATIVE  WASHING-BOX. 
One  little  thing  more,  and  we  shall  be  ready  to  develop  a 


THE    DARK-ROOM. 


25 


plate  when  the  proper  time  comes, 
itself ;  its  cost  is  but  a  few  cents. 


The  cut  below  explains 


SCOVILL'S  PLATE-LIFTER. 


Scovill's  plate-lifter  for  raising  plates  out  of  the  developing 
solution  without  soiling  the  fingers. 


RUSSELL  NEGATIVE  CLASP  AND  DRYING  SUPPORT. 

By  using  the  Russell  negative  clasp  and  drying  support, 
there  is  no  need  of  wetting  or  staining  the  fingers  in  the  de- 
veloper, or  of  touching  a  plate  until  after  it  has  been  devel- 
oped, varnished,  and  dried.  They  are  adapted  for  all  sizes  from 
3i  by  4J  to  8  by  10,  inclusive. 

Of  plates  many  manufacturers  make  several  brands.  Some 
are  intended  for  instantaneous  work,  others  for  landscape,  or 
subjects  of  still  life,  and  for  transparencies  such  as  may  be 
hung  in  the  window,  made  into  lamp  shades,  or  for  use  in  the 
lantern ;  all  are  packed  in  the  same  way. 

All  are  put  up  in  paper  boxes  containing  one  dozen,  in  the 
following  manner :  On  the  bottom  of  the  box  a  plate  is  laid 
face  up — that  is,  the  side  on  which  the  sensitive  preparation  is 


26  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

placed  ;  on  this  either  a  thin  piece  of  paper  is  laid,  or  some 
other  method  is  used  to  keep  its  surface  from  coming  into  con- 
tact with  the  one  next  above  it,  which  is  placed  face  down. 
The  third  plate  is  placed  back  to  back  to  the  second  plate,  and 
so  on  face  to  face,  or  back  to  back,  to  the  top  plate,  which  is 
back  up. 

Before  opening  the  box  containing  the  plates  provide 
yourself  with  a  broad,  flat,  and  very  soft  brush  of  camel 
or  sable  hair  at  least  two  inches  wide ;  light  your  ruby 
lantern,  lay  the  brush  on  a  clean  piece  of  paper  at  your  side^ 
and  all  is  ready  for  opening  the  box  containing  the  sensitive 
plates.  It  is  to  be  assumed  that  in  an  outer  room  you  have 
opened  and  thoroughly  dusted  and  cleaned  the  plate -holders 
or  shields,  as  they  are  often  called.  This  should  be  done 
quite  often ;  if  not,  you  will  probably  find  on  your  negatives 
transparent  spots,  the  result  of  small  specks  of  dust  from  dirty 
holders. 

If  you  use  the  kind  of  holder  shown  in  cut  in  Lesson  I.,  you 
will  notice  a  slide  at  the  left ;  this  acts  as  a  partition  between 
the  two  plates  ;  on  either  side  is  a  flat  spring  of  sheet  brass, 
which  presses  against  the  back  of  each  plate,  holding  it  firmly 
in  position.  When  this  partition  or  slide  is  in  place,  it  is  held 
there  by  a  catch  on  the  edge  of  the  holder.  The  slide  on  the 
right  is  the  one  which  is  drawn  out  when  the  holder  is  placed 
on  the  camera,  and  when  all  is  ready  to  make  the  exposure. 
Of  these  there  are  two — one  in  front  of  each  plate ;  the  other 
in  the  cut  is  seen  as  closed. 

Before  we  close  the  door  of  our  dark-room  let  us  loosen  the 
catch  on  the  slide  between  the  two  plates,  and  pull  each  one 
in  each  holder  out  a  short  distance  and  place  them  on  the  shelf 
in  order  at  our  left,  closing  tightly  the  slides  that  are  in  front 
of  the  plates.  This  done,  we  close  the  door  and  fasten  it  on 
the  inside  to  keep  out  any  curious  friend  who,  on  entering, 
would  bring  in  a  very  bad  friend — light.  This  precaution 
taken,  we  sit  down  comfortably  in  our  chair  facing  the  broad 
shelf,  having  on  one  side  the  empty  plate-holders,  on  the  other 
the  brush,  and  in  front  the  box  of  sensitive  plates  ;  these,  to 
begin  with,  shall  be  Carbutt's  B  or  landscape  plates. 

Take  the  box,  open  it  with  care,  removing  lid,  and  turning 


TJIE    DAKK-ROOM.  27 

back  to  each  side  the  paper  that  covers  the  plates  ;  then  by  the 
edge  gently  raise  the  top  plate,  which  we  find  back  up.  This 
can  easily  be  determined,  if  in  doubt,  by  holding  it  at  an  angle 
towards  the  ruby  light,  the  back  showing  a  bright  reflection, 
the  face  a  very  dull  one.  Take  the  plate  by  one  corner  in  the 
left  hand,  being  careful  not  to  touch  its  face  except  just  at  the 
corner,  and  pass  the  broad  soft  brush  gently  over  the  sensitive 
surface  to  remove  any  particles  of  dust  that,  in  the  shaking  it 
has  had  in  the  box,  may  have  lodged  on  it.  This  done,  lay 
down  the  brush,  take  plate  in  the  right  hand,  and,  having  with- 
drawn the  partition  slide  from  the  plate-holder,  put  the  plate 
just  dusted  carefully  into  one  side  of  it,  facing  the  outside  ;  dust 
another  plate  and  put  it  into  holder,  face  out,  as  before,  thus 
bringing  the  backs  together  ;  then  slip  in  the  partition  slide  be- 
tween the  two  plates  and  fasten  it ;  be  sure  that  the  other  slides 
are  also  closed,  and  holder  'No.  1  with  two  plates  is  ready  for 
use.  Be  careful  in  sliding  in  the  plates  that  you  do  not  bring 
the  face  in  contact  with  the  holder,  otherwise  they  may  be 
scratched ;  the  same  care  must  be  used  in  taking  them  out. 
If  any  plates  are  left  in  the  box,  mark  the  number  in  it, 
the  kind  of  plate,  secure  it  by  a  string,  and  put  away  in  the 
darkest  corner  of  your  dark-room  for  future  use. 

This  work  may  appear  to  be  most  simple,  and  so  it  is ;  all 
things  appear  simple  to  those  who  know  how  to  do  them  and  are 
in  constant  practice,  but  to  the  beginner  the  most  simple  thing 
often  seems  difficult,  until  mastered.  It  will  be  awkward  work 
the  first  time  ;  you  will  not  be  able  to  work  with  ease  in  almost 
total  darkness ;  yon  will  probably  drop  a  plate  or  two  on  the 
floor ;  some  of  them  will  be  put  into  the  holder  wrong  side 
out,  or  scratched  putting  them  in,  and,  without  doubt,  you 
will  cut  your  fingers  with  the  edges  of  the  glass.  None  of 
these  blunders  will  be  made  oftener  than  is  necessary  to  teach 
you  not  to  do  it  again,  however. 

There  is  considerable  knack  in  handling  a  plate  so  that  its 
surface  shall  not  be  injured  or  one's  fingers  cut ;  to  save  the 
latter,  be  careful  not  to  draw  the  fingers  along  the  edges ;  if 
you  do,  it  will  probably  spoil  the  plate  and  hurt  your  fingers. 

On  filling  the  plate-holders  you  are  ready  for  exposing, 
which  will  be  treated  of  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 


LESSON  IV. 

EXPOSING. 

No  FIXED  rule  can  be  given  for  this  part  of  the  photographic 
operation.  No  end  of  conditions  serve  to  change  the  time  re- 
quired even  in  a  day's  work  out-of-doors ;  in-doors  it  is  much 
more  simple,  shortening  the  time  as  we  approach  midday,  and 
lengthening  as  we  pass  into  the  later  hours  of  the  afternoon. 
From  eleven  until  two  o'clock  is  the  time  when  exposure 
should  be  the  shortest ;  an  hour  or  two  before  sunset  the  slowest, 
for  then  we  often  have  in  the  summer  months  a  peculiar  red  or 
yellowish  light  which  renders  photographing  almost  impossible. 

The  later  spring  and  early  summer  months,  as  a  rule,  give  the 
quickest  lights  ;  the  fall  months,  though  the  days  may  be  clear 
to  the  eye,  are  often  hazy  and  yellowish  in  their  color  of  light. 
Longer  exposure  will  sometimes  give  us  all  we  desire,  always 
providing  there  is  no  haze.  This  no  amount  of  time  will  ever  off- 
set. When  a  haze  or  fog  obscures  the  distance  to  the  eye,  do  not 
make  any  attempt  to  work  on  distant  subjects.  It  may  be 
that  subjects  very  near  can  be  made,  there  being  less  haze  or 
fog  to  look  through  ;  but  this  depends  altogether  on  its  density. 

Under-exposure  and  over-exposure  outside  of  certain  com- 
paratively narrow  limits,  is  in  a  general  sense  fatal  to  the  best 
work ;  yet  there  is  what  photographers  call  latitude  of  exposure, 
which,  be  it  more  or  less  than  just  right,  is  not  of  necessity  fatal  to 
good  work.  For  instance,  if  four  seconds  should  be  exactly  the 
right  time  of  exposure  to  give  on  a  certain  subject,  and  either  two 
or  six  seconds  should  have  been  given,  the  negative  in  the  hands 
of  a  skillful  photographer  would  not  be  lost ;  it  would  be  noticed 
in  the  operation  of  development,  and,  as  will  be  later  shown,  the 
method  of  treatment  would  be  so  changed  as  to  produce  a  good 
negative.  The  main  trouble  in  over-exposed  and  under-exposed 
plates  lies  in  the  fact  that  we  do  not  discover  the  error 


EXPOSING.  29 

soon  enough  to  apply  the  remedy.  It  is  much  easier  to  save  a 
plate  that  has  been  over-exposed,  however,  than  one  which  has 
received  too  little  time. 

When  in  doubt,  therefore,  give  the  doubt  to  the  side  of  over- 
exposure.  Time  enough  must  always  be  given  to  impress  the 
image  on  the  plate  ;  you  can  restrain  an  over-exposure,  but  no 
amount  of  coaxing  will  ever  bring  out  in  the  negative  that 
which  has  not  been  put  there  by  your  lens.  You  might  as  well 
give  it  up  first  as  last.  Photography  will  do  a  great  deal  now- 
a-days,but  it  will  not  make  an  instantaneous  picture  of  a  yellow 
horse  against  a  green  back-ground  ;  it  might  do  something  for 
you  if  the  horse  was  white.  This  brings  up  another  phase  of 
the  subject,  which  at  first  may  give  you  trouble.  The  photo- 
graphic character  of  subjects  varies  as  greatly  as  does  the  sub- 
ject. The  view  of  a  house  that  is  painted  white  will  require 
less  time  for  exposure  than  one  that  is  painted  with  the  reds, 
browns  and  yellows,  so  common  of  late.  Spring  foliage  will 
require  less  time  than  summer  foliage  that  has  faded  some- 
what, while  the  glorious  tints  of  the  fall  are  practically,  if  not 
wholly,  beyond  our  art.  People  with  sallow  complexions  and 
dark  dresses  will  require  more  time  than  the  child  or  young  per- 
son whose  complexion  is  clear  and  bright,  and  clothing  light  in 
color.  Dark  eyes,  as  a  rule,  photograph  well ;  light  blue  eyes  do 
not.  An  ordinary  open  view  with  a  Waterbury  lens  and 
medium  stop  will  probably  require,  on  a  good  clear  day,  about 
two  or  three  seconds'  exposure ;  with  a  Morrison  wide-angle, 
half  that  time.  If  the  view  to  be  made '  is  through  a  well- 
wooded  lane  or  roadway,  or  of  a  house  well  hidden  in  trees, 
the  time  might  be  ten  or  twelve  seconds  ;  if  of  a  dull  lighted 
interior  it  may  take  hours. 

From  what  is  written  it  may  be  that  the  reader  is  fear- 
ful he  will  never  know  how  much  time  to  give.  Do  not 
despair;  you  will  learn  more  easily  than  you  imagine.  A 
certain  rule  as  to  the  time  required  for  any  given  subject 
— the  rule  which  the  writer  fancies  must  be  the  rule  of  all 
out-door  workers — is  this:  The  point  of  view  having  been 
selected,  the  camera  in  position,  everything  ready  for  the 
exposure,  I  stop  a  moment,  look  carefully  over  the  view,  call 


30  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

to  mind  a  certain  view  which  in  character  of  subject  and  con- 
ditions of  light  is  similar  to  the  one  before  me,  and  to  which 
the  right  time  had  been  given,  judge  this  one  by  that,  and  ex- 
pose accordingly ;  giving  it  the  same,  or  more  or  less,  as,  in 
my  judgment,  it  may  seem  to  demand.  In  my  memory  there 
are  stored  away  for  such  use  a  few  instances,  which  I  may 
be  allowed  to  term  as  samples ;  one  at  least  of  them  is  quite  cer- 
tain to  meet  the  present  want ;  by  it,  as  stated,  I  measure  this. 
Of  such  samples  there  need  not  be  many.  A  broad  open  view, 
with  distance,  a  view  through  a  road  well  shaded  by  trees  on 
either  side,  a  view  in  woods  with  heavy  foliage,  a  view  through 
a  grove  with  medium  distance  and  rocky  foreground  ;  such,  and 
others,  that  I  do  not  need  to  name.  Each  have  to  me  a  certain 
photographic  value ;  each  I  know  well  as  to  time  given.  I 
choose  my  sample,  as  I  have  termed  it,  and  use  my  judgment. 
To  one  who  has  no  standard  in  his  mind  this  may  appear  diffi- 
cult to  understand  ;  later  on,  when  you  have  made  a  few  good 
negatives,  you  will  have  them  impressed  on  your  memory  and 
can  then  choose  your  own  samples.  There  seems  to  be  a  sort  of 
intuition  about  this  matter  of  exposure  that  makes  the  subject 
hard  to  explain,  for  even  after  you  have  taken  the  cap  from 
the  lens,  your  mind  made  up  as  to  the  time,  the  chances  are 
more  than  ever  that  you  will  change  it  to  a  longer  or  shorter 
exposure,  which  nine  times  out  of  ten  will  be  the  right  thing 
to  do.  This,  of  course,  is  after  experience  has  been  had. 

An  authority  in  photography  said,  many  years  ago  :  "  In 
the  whole  range  of  photographic  manipulations,  the  sum  of 
which  goes  to  make  up  the  perfect  picture,  there  is  not  one  of 
more  importance  than  the  correct  time  of  exposure  in  the  cam- 
era." This  is  true  to-day. 

In  generalities  enough  has  been  written ;  let  us  now  take 
our  camera  and  plates  and  have  "  a  shot,"  as  we  call  it.  In 
other  words,  let  us  make  our  first  exposure.  See  that  the  cam- 
era and  lens  are  clean  and  free  from  dust ;  see  that  the  holders 
are  tightly  closed  before  leaving  the  dark-room ;  see  that  they 
are  in  a  good  box  to  shield  them  from  the  light,  not  forgetting 
that,  although  light  we  must  have,  we  want  only  that  which 
passes  through  our  lens  ;  it  is  our  friend,  yet,  by  carelessness, 
it  will  prove  our  worst  enemy. 


EXPOSING.  31 

The  plate-holders  must  always  be  well  cared  for,  never  laid 
about  upon  the  grass  in  the  sun  ;  keep  all  in  the  box  but  the  one 
in  use.  Let  us  put  up  the  camera  here ;  a  good  foreground, 
moderate  distance,  bright  foliage.  Set  tripod  firmly,  focus 
with  a  large  stop  in  lens  on  an  object,  say  a  hundred  or  so  feet 
away,  adjust  the  sliding  front,  and  turn  the  camera  to  one  side  or 
the  other  until  you  have  upon  the  ground-glass  the  subject  you 
wish.  Keep  the  camera  level,  changing  the  stop  to  the  size 
that  will  make  foreground  and  distance -both  clear  and  distinct 
upon  the  glass ;  if  immediate  foreground  is  not  as  sharp  as  it 
should  be,  draw  back  the  swing-back  at  top  until  it  is ;  screw 
up  tightly  all  the  set  screws,  and  cap  the  lens. 

After  these  things  have  been  done,  remove  the  ground-glass, 
take  plate-holder  from  box,  throw  your  focusing  cloth  over  it, 
close  box,  and  put  holder  in  place  of  the  ground-glass ;  draw 
the  slide  with  a  steady  motion  until  nearly  out,  then  with  a 
quick  motion  entirely  out,  keeping  cloth  over  it  the  whole 
time,  and  letting  it  remain  over  the  holder  until  it  is  returned 
to  the  box.  You  are  now  ready  to  expose ;  study  object,  set- 
tle in  your  mind  the  time  you  should  give — let  us  say  it  is 
four  seconds  on  a  Keystone  B  plate — uncap,  give  the  time, 
and  re-cap.  In  taking  off  and  putting  on  the  cap  do  it  quickly, 
but  be  careful  not  to  jar  or  shake  the  camera,  particularly  when 
you  uncap.  If  you  do,  you  may  cause  vibration,  and  thus  ren- 
der the  picture  indistinct. 

The  lens  being  capped,  raise  the  corner  of  the  focusing  cloth 
that  covers  the  holder,  and  return  the  slide  you  had  removed. 
Do  this  by  a  steady,  quick  motion,  shielding  it  with  the  cloth 
and  putting  in  the  slide  squarely,  not  one  corner  first,  for  in- 
side there  is  a  spring  to  cut  off  the  light  when  the  slide  is  with- 
drawn ;  examine  it  when  empty  and  you  will  see  why  it  must 
go  in  square.  Be  particular  about  this. 

Having  now  made  one  exposure,  which  we  will  assume  to  be 
exactly  right,  let  us  make  two  more,  which,  we  shall  find,  later 
on,  are  wrong ;  one  say  for  two  seconds  or  a  little  less,  and 
one  for  six  or  seven  seconds,  giving  us  for  a  future  lesson  one 
that  is  right,  one  that  is  under-exposed  and  one  that  is  over- 
exposed ;  their  action  under  the  developer  in  the  next  lesson 
will  give  us  the  proof. 


32  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Later,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  plate  to  which  was  given  four 
seconds  proves  to  be  just  right — a  good,  clean,  clear,  sharp 
negative  of  fine  intensity,  all  that  we  want.  You  now  have  a 
sample,  as  we  have  termed  it,  or  standard,  for  that  character  or 
class  of  views ;  for  such,  in  future,  you  now  have  something  to 
measure  another  exposure  of  similar  subject  by ;  if  of  little 
thicker  foliage  or  foreground,  or  little  less  brilliant  light,  then 
in  your  judgment  a  little  more  time  ;  if  the  reverse,  then  a 
little  less  time. 


LESSON  Y. 
DEVELOPING. 

DEVELOPMENT  is  that  part  of  the  photographic  art  which 
brings  to  sight  the  latent  or  hidden  image  on  the  sensitive 
plate  after  it  has  been  exposed  in  the  camera ;  it  is  a  delicate 
operation,  requires  close  attention,  good  eyesight  and  judg- 
ment, oftentimes  patience,  always  care  and  cleanliness.  It 
can  only  be  carried  forward  when  all  but  the  ruby  light  has 
been  excluded  ;  if  successful  in  it,  we  have  our  greatest  pho- 
tographic joy;  if  not,  our  greatest  disappointment;  for  if  a 
success,  we  have  a  negative  from  which,  with  care  in  its 
handling,  hundreds  of  charming  prints  may  be  made.  Before 
proceeding  to  develop  the  plates  exposed  in  the  last  lesson,  let 
us  put  our  house  in  order,  make  the  developer,  etc.,  so  that, 
when  we  close  the  door  of  the  dark-room,  everything  will  be 
at  hand  and  just  where  it  should  be.  A  good  motto  for  the 
dark-room  would  be  the  old  one  of  "  a  place  for  everything, 
and  everything  in  its  place,"  not  only  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
always  well  to  have  it  so,  but  that  in  the  darkness  of  the  dark- 
room it  must  be  so,  otherwise  we  are  not  able  to  work.  So 
dim  is  the  light,  excepting  only  that  which  is  just  before  us, 
that,  if  anything  is  wanted,  we  must  know  just  where  to  put 
our  hand  to  find  it. 

Always,  before  commencing,  wash  thoroughly  each  article 
that  is  to  be  used  ;  cleanliness  in  photography  is  but  the  syn- 
onym for  success.  The  developer  which  we  shall  first  use 
will  be  made  after  Mr.  Carbutt's  formula ;  it  differs  but  little 
from  many  others,  is  simple,  and  works  satisfactorily.  Just 
here  let  us  impress  one  thing  upon  the  student.  During  these 
lessons,  use  this  developer  only ;  under  no  circumstances  try 
any  other,  for  most  excellent  work  can  be  made  with  it. 
Leave  experiments  to  the  future,  follow  instructions  closely ; 


34  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR 

if  you  do  not,  confusion  and  failure  will  result.  As  a  rule, 
almost  without  an  exception,  beginners  make  very  poor  work. 
There  is  no  reason  why  they  should  make  good  work.  They 
blame  their  formulae  instead  of  their  own  lack  of  knowledge 
and  practice  ;  somebody  says  use  so-and-so,  another  something 
else ;  the  work  does  not  improve,  discouragement  follows, 
sometimes  the  charming  art  is  given  up  in  despair.  Stick  to 
the  simple  rules  here  given,  and  you  are  sure  to  make  good 
work. 

Now  for  the  chemicals  needed  to  compound  the  developer : 

Sulphite  of  soda,  crystals 1  pound. 

Carbonate  of  potash,  granulated 1  pound. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  granulated 1  pound. 

Pyrogallic  acid 4  ounces. 

Sulphuric  acid 1  ounce. 

Bromide  of  potash 1  ounce. 

This  quantity  of  chemicals  will  give  you  enough  developer 
for  nearly  three  hundred  plates  of  6£  by  8J  size,  and  will,  if 
used  with  care  and  bought  of  a  conscientious  dealer  in  photo- 
graphic chemicals,  not  cost  you  much  over  one  cent  for  each 
plate,  reference  being  had  to  the  proportions  given  below,  and 
used  on  plates  to  which  proper  exposure  has  been  given. 

To  compound  the  developer  for  use,  proceed  as  follows : 
Procure  two  twelve-ounce  bottles  of  clear  white  glass,  for 
reason  that  you  can  always  see  if  they  are  clean,  with  well-fit- 
ting corks ;  mark  one  "  No.  1,  Pyro ;"  the  other  "  No.  2,  Potash  " 
This  done,  take  the  eight-ounce  graduate,  put  into  it  five 
ounces  of  good,  soft,  spring  water,  or  better  still  if  in  doubt  as 
to  the  quality  of  the  water,  use  that  from  melted  ice.  Weigh 
and  add  two  ounces  of  sulphite  of  soda  crystals,  stir  with  a 
glass  rod  or  stick  until  dissolved,  then  add  slowly  half  a  dram, 
fluid  measure,  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  to  this  add  240  grains  of 
pyrogallic  acid ;  when  dissolved  fill  up  to  eight  ounces  with 
water. 

Next  take  the  bottle  which  has  been  marked  "No.  1,  Pyro," 
place  in  it  the  funnel,  into  the  neck  of  which  you  have  first 
placed  a  little  wad  of  clean  wet  cotton ;  pour  the  solution  into 
the  funnel,  having  the  cotton  loose  enough  to  allow  the  solution 


DEVELOPING.  35 

to  tr'ckle  slowly  into  the  bottle.  This  solution  is  good  for  use 
so  long  as  it  is  clear.  When  it  becomes  opaque  or  muddy- 
looking  it  must  be  rejected. 

Next  make  up  a  solution  for  the  bottle  marked  "No.  2, 
Potash,"  by  dissolving  one  ounce  each  of  potash  and  soda  in 
five  ounces  of  water  ;  then  add  water  to  make  eight  ounces  ; 
filter  in  same  way,  being  sure  that  the  filter  has  been  thor- 
oughly washed.  In  hot  weather,  when  chemicals  work  more 
rapidly  than  in  winter,  it  is  well  to  add  to  "  No.  1,  Pyro," 
about  fifteen  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium.  The  contents  now 
in  the  two  bottles  form  what  is  known  as  stock  solution, 
and  for  the  process  of  developing  are  used  as  follows : 

|     -, 

Water 4  fluid  ounces. 

No.  1,  Pyro 2  fluid  drams. 

No.  2,  Potash 2  fluid  drams. 

Of  this,  in  the  proportions  as  given,  as  much  may  be  mixed     t7^>v 
as  at  one  sitting  is  likely  to  be  used. 

The  developer  being  ready,  wash  the  pan  or  tray  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used,  and  place  over  it  the  large  pan  described  in  a 
previous  lesson,  in  front  of  the  lighted  ruby  lantern.   Place  the    f^et^. 
holders  containing  the  exposed  plates,  and  the  developer  in    a++ji. 
handy  position  within  reach,  close  and  fasten  the   dark-room 
door,  and  take  your  seat  facing  the  lantern  and  tray. 

All  being  ready,  remove  the  slide  which  divides  the  plates 
in  holder,  and  let  the  plate  to  which  four  seconds'  exposure 
was  given,  slide  out  slowly  face  up  to  prevent  scratching  the 
film  on  face  of  plate,  close  holder,  and  lay  the  plate  in  the  tray 
face  up  (the  dull-looking  side),  then  with  a  sweeping  motion 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  pour  the  developer  over  it;  do 
not  pour  upon  one  spot,  but  gently  sweep  it  over  the  whole 
face. 

This  done,  move  the  tray  from  side  to  side,  being  careful  to 
have  the  solution  wash  over  all  parts  of  the  plate  and  keep  it 
gently  in  motion.  Should  an  air  bubble  appear  on  any  part  of 
the  plate,  gently  touch  it  with  a  finger  and  break  it,  otherwise 
you  will  have  a  spot,  on  which  the  developer  not  acting,  after 
the  process  of  fixing,  will  be  transparent.  In  a  few  moments 


r 


36  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

a  shadowy  or  darkening  appearance  on  part  of  the  plate  will 
be  noticed  gradually  growing  in  distinctness ;  this  will  be  the 
high  lights,  the  sky,  or  objects  of  a  light  color  on  which  the 
strongest  light  has  fallen,  followed  by  an  indistinct  outline,  as 
it  lies  in  the  tray,  of  the  view  or  picture  thrown  upon  the 
plate  by  the  lens.  In  a  moment  or  two  it  will  slightly  fade 
from  view,  becoming  less  distinct ;  then  with  the  thimble  on 
your  forefinger  slip  the  point  of  the  little  spear  on  thimble  un- 
der the  plate  and  raise  it  from  the  tray  ;  hold  it  up  to  the  light 
and  examine  as  to  its  intensity  and  the  detail  of  foliage,  and 
see  if  the  objects  which  were  in  shadow  have  all  appeared. 

If  not  quite  intense  enough,  in  other  words,  not  so  opaque  in 
the  sky  as  to  shut  out  all  light  as  viewed  by  the  ruby  flame ;  if 
the  details  in  the  shadows  have  not  appeared,  the  bark  on  the 
trees  is  not  distinct,  replace  it  in  the  solution  and  continue  the 
operation  until  these  conditions  are  attained.  Then  wash  it 
with  a  gentle  stream  of  water  from  the  upper  pail,  and  it  is 
ready  to  place  in  the  alum  solution.  This  we  shall  not  do  in 
this  lesson,  but  will  stop  with  the  development. 

Next,  let  us  take  the  plate  to  which  we  gave  two  seconds  or 
a  little  less,  treat  this  in  exactly  the  same  way,  and  we  shall 
find  that  it  "  comes  up,"  as  photographers  say,  very  slowly. 
We  wait  patiently,  but  the  details  do  not  appear  in  the  shad- 
ows, the  high  lights  become  very  opaque  and  intense  ;  there  is 
much  more  of  the  plate  on  which  nothing  appears  than  there 
was  in  the  other  ;  we  continue  twice  as  long  in  our  efforts  to 
"  get  something  out ; "  it  does  not  come ;  we  give  it  up  and 
wash  as  we  did  the  other. 

Lastly,  we  take  the  other  and  last  plate,  to  which  we  gave 
an  exposure  of  seven  or  eight  seconds  ;  treat  this  as  the  others  ; 
almost  instantly  we  notice  the  action  of  the  developer ;  it 
works  rapidly ;  the  whole  view  seems  to  flash  up  at  once,  de- 
tail in  shadows,  everything  "  comes  up,"  almost  instantly  ;  it 
appears  to  finish  at  once ;  we  take  it  from  the  tray,  and  to  stop 
further  action  of  developer  wash  it.  Here  we  will  let  them 
rest  for  future  treatment,  although  the  operation  is,  in  practice,  a 
continuous  one.  For  each  plate  a  fresh  solution  must  be  used. 
Between  the  development  of  each  plate  wash  the  tray  by  play- 


DEVELOPING.  37 

Ing  t'iie  little  hose  into  it  to  remove  any  of  the  old  solution  that 
has  become  a  dark-reddish  color. 

If  in  developing  a  plate  that  has  had  the  right  exposure 
given  it,  you  should  stop  short  in  the  development,  you 
will  find  the  details  in  the  poorly-lighted  parts  of  the 
plate  are  wanting,  and  the  intensity  of  the  high  lights  and 
sky  not  dense  enough  to  shut  off  the  light  when  you  come 
to  print  it  on  paper.  This  intensity  should  be  such  as  to 
give,  when  the  print  is  made,  just  a  faint  tinge  to  the  paper, 
not  so  dense  as  to  stop  all  light  and  leave  the  paper  a  pure 
white,  nor  lacking  in  intensity  to  such  a  degree  as  to  allow  the 
passage  of  too  much  light  so  as  to  make  a  dark,  dull,  heavy  sort 
of  sky.  If  we  push  the  development  in  the  under-exposed 
plate  in  our  efforts  to  get  out  the  details,  we  shall  have  the  sky 
very  dense,  and,  lacking  the  details.  We  have,  when  finished, 
a  large  portion  of  the  plate  that  is  little  more  than  clear 
glass,  giving  us  a  negative  of  severe  contrasts,  and  worthless, 
yielding  a  print  with  an  absolutely  white  sky  and  heavy  dark 
.shadows. 

The  over-exposed  plate  will,  if  we  push  the  development,  or 
•continue  it  too  long,  grow  up,  as  it  were,  all  over  the  plate, 
and,  when  finished,  be  of  too  even  a  tone,  too  much  alike  all 
over,  lacking  in  contrast ;  if  stopped  short  it  will  be  lacking  in 
intensity  in  the  high  lights,  and,  like  the  under-exposed  plate? 
-worthless. 

Over-exposure,  if  not  too  great,  we  can  control.  If  you  have 
reason  to  know  that  a  plate  has  been  over-exposed,  make  the 
developer  as  before,  with  this  change  :  use  but  half  as  much  of 
the  No.  2  solution,  and  add  half  a  dozen  drops  of  a  solution 
of  the  bromide,  made  up  50  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water.  The 
cutting  down  of  the  No.  2  will  make  the  development  slower ; 
the  bromide  will  also  restrain  the  rapid  action,  and  help  to 
gain  intensity.  If  it  still  dashes  up,  pour  off  solution,  and  add 
a  little  more  bromide ;  if  too  slow,  add  a  little  more  of  No.  2. 
In  this  way,  you  may  be  able,  by  judgment  in  variously  com- 
pounding, to  save  a  day's  work  that  has  been  over-exposed.  No 
amount  of  writing  can  tell  you  more  than  this ;  practice  alone 
will  teach  you.  If  a  plate  is  but  little  under-exposed,  it  may 


38  THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC!  INSTRUCTOR. 

be  saved  by  using  more  of  the  No.  2;  if  much  so,  do  not 
bother  with  it,  for  an  image  not  impressed  on  the  plate  cannot 
be  developed. 

If  at  any  time  a  fog  seems  to  overspread  the  plate,  a  sort  of 
a  veil,  as  it  were,  thrown  over  it,  it  may  be  from  one  of  many 
causes,  among  them  over-exposure,  improper  shade  of  ruby 
glass,  light  entering  the  dark-room,  a  camera  or  holders  that 
are  defective,  an  old  and  decomposed  solution  of  No.  1.  Fine 
transparent  lines  on  the  plate  may  come  from  using  a  brush  to 
dust  off  which  had  bristles  that  were  too  stiff;  or  from  injury 
to  plate  in  putting  in  or  taking  out  of  the  holder. 

Spots  may  occur  from  not  breaking  air  bubbles,  or  from  dust 
on  the  plate.  A  transparent  patch  along  the  edge  of  plate  is- 
often  the  result  of  not  covering  it  with  developer  ;  the  same 
careless  act  will  give  you  a  portion  of  the  plate  which  varies  Jn 
intensity  and  detail  from  the  other  parts.  A  swelling  up,  or 
"  frilling,"  as  it  is  termed,  generally  along  the  edges,  is  the  re- 
sult of  using  a  developer  at  too  high  a  temperature. 

As  yet  the  negative  cannot  be  exposed  to  white  light ;  it 
must  pass  through  the  alum  and  hyposulphite  of  soda  before 
it  leaves  the  dark-room ;  and  in  the  next  lesson  we  shall  learn 
how  to  perform  these  operations  correctly. 


LESSON  VI. 

FIXING,  WASHING,  VARNISHING,  INTENSIFYING, 
AND  REDUCING. 

PJROCUBE  two  half-gallon  glass  jars  with  wide  mouths.  In 
one  make  up  the  alum  solution,  one  part  of  alum  to  eight  or 
ten  parts  of  water ;  in  the  other,  the  "  hypo "  solution,  one 
part  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  to  five  parts  of  water.  When 
dissolved,  these  solutions  are  ready  for  use ;  they  need  not  be 
filtered. 

These  chemicals  you  can  buy  by  the  pound ;  they  are  cheap 
and  come  neatly  packed  in  paper  boxes.  For  this  work, 
purchase  two  trays  of  size  eight  by  ten  inches  and  about 
two  inches  deep  (see  Lesson  III.),  one  to  be  used  for  each 
solution,  of  which  pour  enough  in  the  tray  to  fully  cover 
the  plate ;  if  a  dozen  plates  are  to  be  passed  through,  put  in 
a  larger  quantity  than  for  a  few  plates ;  when  through,  throw 
it  away.  The  "  hypo  "  especially  should  be  renewed  when  it 
works  slowly  ;  it  should  do  its  work,  as  will  be  explained  later, 
inside  of  ten  minutes. 

The  negative  having  been  washed  after  development,  as  di- 
rected in  last  lesson,  is  placed  in  the  alum  solution,  in  which  it 
must  be  allowed  to  remain  for  four  or  five  minutes ;  wash  again, 
and  then  place  in  the  "  hypo  "  solution,  where  it  must  rest  until 
all  of  the  whiteness  has  disappeared,  as  seen  from  the  back. 
This  may  be  conducted  in  the  dark-room  with  the  door  open, 
in  a  weak  light ;  it  is  not  well  to  trust  to  a  strong  outside  light, 
however,  until  all  the  whiteness  has  been  removed  by  the 
u  hypo ;"  after  this  you  may  expose  it  to  any  light. 

This  is  known  as  the  process  of  "fixing."  If,  after  taking 
the  negative  from  the  "  hypo  "  and  examining  it  by  a  strong 
light  outside  the  dark-room,  you  should  notice  any  brownish- 
mottled  appearance  in  looking  through  it,  return  it  to  the 
"  hypo  "  until  it  is  removed.  The  operations  herein  described 


40  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

do  not  need  any  great  skill  or  judgment ;  they  are  not  as  diffi- 
cult to  conduct  as  the  exposure  or  the  development;  yet, 
simple  as  they  are,  they  need  care  and  attention,  especially 
the  "fixing." 

Let  us  again  impress  on  the  attention  of  the  student  the 
necessity  of  conducting  this  part  of  the  process  in  a  very  weak 
light;  do  not  open  your  dark-room  door  until  the  plate  has 
been  placed  in  the  "  hypo " ;  even  then  it  is  better  to  cover 
the  tray  while  the  door  is  opened.  After  it  has  been  in  the 
"  hypo  "  for  five  minutes  the  cover  may  be  removed  and  the 
plate  examined  by  looking  at  the  back,  when  in  most  cases 
you  will  notice  a  whitish  cloud  on  a  portion  of  the  plate  not 
yet  dissolved  by  the  action  of  the  "  hypo ;"  permit  it,  as  be- 
fore stated,  to  remain  until  this  has  disappeared. 

Thorough  "  fixing  "  is  all-important ;  on  it  depends  the  life 
of  the  negative ;  if  but  half  done,  you  will  some  day  (it  may 
be  a  week  or  months)  discover  a  brownish  stain  on  that  part 
of  the  plate  on  which  the  "  hypo  "  had  not  fully  acted. 

WASHING. 

After  the  "fixing,''  the  plates  are  placed  in  water  to  wash; 
running  water,  if  you  have  it ;  if  not,  in  a  large  tub  or  pail  in 
which  the  water  should  be  changed  two  or  three  times  an  hour 
for  several  hours ;  if  running  water  is  used,  an  hour  will  be 
ample  time  for  the  washing. 

In  Lesson  III.  an  illustration  of  the  Scovill  Negative  Wash- 
ing Box  is  seen,  a  cheap  and  effective  apparatus  for  the 

purpose.  Upon  removing  the 
plate  from  the  water,  place  in  a 
drying  rack,  or  in  some  way  on 
end,  and  allow  it  to  dry  spon- 
taneously. 

If  in  haste,  place  it  in  the  sun 
or  near  the  stove,  and  you  will 
learn  that  it  will  not  dry  ;  it  will 
melt  the  gelatine  in  the  film,  and 

ScoyiU's  Negative  Drying  Rack,  made       teacll    yOU    the    leSSOU     that    will 
with  either  Wooden  or  Corrugated          prevent  fa  repetition. 


FIXING,    WASHING,    VARNISHING,    ETC.,    ETC.  41 

Next  in  order  is 

VARNISHING. 

The  negative  must  be  absolutely  free  from  all  moisture.  This 
will  probably  be  the  case  on  the  day  following  development. 
If  in  doubt  hold  the  plates  near  the  fire  to  drive  out  all  moisture 
for  a  few  moments,  or  stand  them  in  the  sun  for  a  while,  an  oper- 
ation that  may  be  performed,  since  the  water  no  longer  satur- 
ates the  film.  For  amateurs'  purposes  it  is  rarely  necessary  to 
varnish.  With  care,  scores  of  prints  may  be  made  from  the 
unvarnished  negative  without  damaging  it  in  the  slightest,  but 
for  those  who  may  wish  to  varnish  it  is  well  to  describe  the 


process.     Yarnish  can  be  had  especially  for  this  purpose  already 
prepared ;  it  is  known  as  Scovill's  Negative  Yarnish. 

The  plate  being  dry,  seize  it  by  the  lower  left-hand  corner, 

as  shown  in  the  cut,  holding  it 
level  and  pouring  from  "the  bottle 
on  to  the  film  quite  a  pool  of  the 
varnish.  Then  slowly  lower  the 
end  farthest  from  you,  allowing 
the  varnish  to  spread  to  the  fur- 
ther end ;  then  depress  the  upper 
edge,  flowing  the  varnish  slowly 
along  to  the  spot  where  your 
thumb  is,  then  to  the  corner  next 
to  you,  gradually  rising  until  you 
reach  the  position  shown  in  the 
cut,  when  the  surplus  is  drained 
back  into  the  bottle.  While  drain- 
ing keep  up  a  rocking  motion  to 
and  from  you  to  break  up  any  tendency  of  the  varnish  to  set  in 


42  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

ridges;   cork  bottle  and   put    plate  in  drying-rack  until  the 
varnish  hardens.     This  will  take  at  least  two  or  three  hours. 

When  a  number  of  negatives  have 
been  developed  and  varnished,  there 
are  two  methods  of  preserving  them 
from  dust  and  from  scratches.  One 
is  by  putting  them  in  envelopes  made 
of  stout  paper,  and  called  u  negative 
preservers,"  which  are  sold  to  corre>~ 
pond  with  the  different  sized  nega- 
tives. Another  way  is  to  store  the 
negatives  in  boxes  like  the  one  shown.  These  are  called  "  nega- 
tive boxes,"  and  are  constructed  to  hold  twenty-fournegatives, 
which  are  slipped  info  the  grooves  at  the  two  sictes,  and  thus 
secured  from  rubbing  each  other.  These  boxes  are  also  made 
light-tight  for  holding  unexposed  and  undeveloped  plates. 
Some,  too,  are  provided  with  lock  and  key,  which  often  is  a 
convenient  addition. 

The  negative  is  now  ready  for  printing,  but  before  we  pro- 
ceed to  describe  that  process  let  us  consider  some  of  the  methods 
for  improving  the  quality  of  the  negative  by  increasing  or 
reducing  its  density. 

%   INCREASING  AND  REDUCING  INTENSITY. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  negative  lacks  intensity,  from 
causes  which  are  not  at  this  time  worth  reciting.  If  you  have 
a  negative  of  a  view  which  you  cannot  easily  retake,  and 
which  has  all  the  needed  details  in  the  shadows,  then  it  may 
be  well  to  try  some  strengthening  or  intensifying  process,  but 
if  you  can  duplicate  it,  by  all  means  do  that.  If  it  has  not  the 
requisite  detail,  throw  it  away,  for  all  the  intensifying 'that 
can  be  done  will  but  increase  opacity ;  detail  you  cannot  add ; 
if  the  image  is  not  upon  the  plate  a  ton  of  chemicals  will  not 
put  it  there.  At  its  best,  the  operation  is  far  from  being 
satisfactory,  as  a  rule ;  an  intensified  negative  is  never  as  fine 
as  one  correctly  exposed  and  properly  developed.  The  formula 
recommended  by  Edwards  has  acted  as  well  as  any.  Prepare  a 
saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  in  water,  and  pour 


FIXING,    WASHING,    VARNISHING,    ETC.,    ETC.  43 

of  this  a  sufficient  quantity  into  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium 
(one  and  a  quarter  ounce  of  iodide  to  six  ounces  of  water),  until 
the  point  is  reached  when  the  red  precipitate  is  not  dissolved 
by  shaking ;  be  careful  not  to  add  more  mercury  than  is  just 
enough  to  leave  a  slight  precipitate. 

To  this  add  one  ounce  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  crystals, 
and  add  water  to  make  twenty  ounces. 

For  use,  take  in  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  above  to  three 
ounces  of  water,  and  in  this  place  the  plate  to  be.  intensified. 
Should  the  plate  not  have  been  well  washed  after  the  "  fixing  " 
process,  yellow  stains  will  appear  from  the  traces  of  hypo  left 
in  the  film.  Be  careful  not  to  carry  the  operation  too  far ; 
wash  well.  Hall's  intensifier,  which  is  sold  already  prepared, 
is  used  by  many  because  of  its  convenience.  Merely  now  it 
on  the  plate  until  the  proper  density  of  color  is  obtained ;  then 
wash  in  pure  water  and  dry. 

If  in  the  development  you  have  gone  too  far  and  the 
negtive  is  too  intense,  it  can  be  reduced  by  the  following : 

Red  prussiate  potash 1  ounce  J  &    f*r 

Water 16  ounces  /    *          >, 

Hyposulphite  of  soda 1  ounce  . 

Water 16  ounces 

Pour  out  enough  of  the  hypo  solution  to  cover  the  plate  ; 
to  this  add,  say,  four  drops  of  potash  solution  to  each  ounce  of 
the  hypo  solution.  Mix  well,  and  in  this  immerse  the  nega- 
tive; watch  closely,  removing  the  plate  from  time  to  time, 
that  you  may  see  how  the  reduction  proceeds.  When  reduced 
sufficiently,  wash  well  and  dry. 

It  is  better  in  developing  to  err  on  the  side  of  too  great 
intensity  and  then  reduce,  than  to  stop  short  in  development 
and  endeavor  to  intensify.  The  first  may  prove  a  success ;  the 
last,  as  a  rule,  is  scarcely  satisfactory. 


' 

r          - 


LESSON  VII. 
PRINTING   ON   ALBUMENIZED    PAPER. 

THE  SILVER  SOLUTION. 

The  albumen  paper  that  is  sold  by  dealers  has  been  soaked 
in  an  alkaline  salt,  and  when  such  paper  is  floated  upon  a  solu- 
tion of  silver  nitrate,  two  compounds  are  formed ;  the  organic 
albuminate  of  silver,  and  silver  chloride,  both  of  which  are 
sensitive  to  light. 

A  sixty-grain  solution  of  silver  nitrate  may  be  recom- 
mended, that  is,  one  which  contains  sixty  grains  of  silver  to 
the  ounce,  although  a  much  weaker  one  will  answer  the 
purpose  tolerably  well.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  bath  grows 
weaker  with  use. 

Such  a  bath  may  be  made  as  follows : 

Water ; 64  ounces 

Silver  nitrate 8       " 

Ammonia  nitrate 2      " 

Magnesic  nitrate 1  ounce 

To  each  ounce  of  the  solution  add  one  drop  of  strong  ammonia. 
By  adding  silver  nitrate,  from  time  to  time,  the  solution 
may  be  kept  up  to  the  required  standard.  This  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  argentometer ;  the  figures  at  the  surface  of  the 
bath  in  which  the  instrument  is  floated  indicating  the  number 
of  grains  per  ounce.  The  ordinary  hydrometer  will  serve  well 
enough,  since  we  may  add  silver,  from  time  to  time,  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  keep  the  instrument  at  the  same  level  when 
floated  in  the  bath.  We  may,  indeed,  employ  any  glass  tube 
closed  at  one  end  and  open  at  the  other.  Cause  the  tube  to 
stand  upright  in  the  liquid  by  dropping  shot  into  the  open 
end.  The  surface  of  the  bath  may  be  marked  by  a  ring  of 


PRINTING   ON   ALBUMENIZED    PAPER.  45 

thread,  and  tins  mark  may  afterward  be  made  permanent  by  a 
three-cornered  file.  Of  course  the  tube  must  always  contain 
shot  of  the  same  number  and  size. 

On  account  of  the  presence  of  ammonic  and  magnesic 
salts,  the  argentometer  should  read,  not  sixty,  but  eighty. 
Only  silver  nitrate  needs  be  added  from  time  to  time,  as 
the  solution  is  not  depleted  of  the  alkaline  salts,  except  as  the 
quantity  of  the  liquid  is  diminished.  The  best  way  is  to  add 
a  quantity  of  solution  compounded  as  above,  and  then  add 
silver  nitrate  to  bring  the  whole  up  to  the  required  reading  on 
the  hydrometer. 

The  silver-bath  should  be  kept  in  an  alkaline  condition  by 
adding,  occasionally,  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  The  tendency 
to  become  acid  is  due  to  the  liberation  of  nitric  acid  from  the 
silver  nitrate. 

During  the  floating  of  the  paper  some  organic  particles 
pass  from  the  paper  into  the  bath,  where  they  soon  decompose 
and  discolor  the  solution.  The  bath  may  be  cleared  by  shaking 
it  up  with  a  handful  of  china  clay  or  kaolin,  which  adheres  to 
the  particles  and  carries  them  to  the  bottom.  The  bath  should 
then  be  filtered,  or,  when  used,  it  may  be  decanted,  leaving 
the  sediment  behind.  Better  yet,  the  bath  may  be  drawn 
from  the  bottle  by  two  tubes,  carried  in  one  cork  after  the 
manner  of  the  wash  bottle  which  is  so  much  used  in  laboratories. 
One  tube  is  a  syphon  that  reaches  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle, 
while  the  longer  arm  is  outside  the  bottle  and  carries  the  solu- 
tion into  the  tray.  The  other  tube  passes  merely  through  the 
cork,  and  through  this  a  current  of  air  is  blown ;  the  pressure 
from  this  starts  the  syphon. 

FLOATING  THE  PAPER. 

This  must  be  done  in  a  glass,  porcelain  or  wooden  tray. 
If  wood  is  used,  the  bottom  and  sides  should  be  well  shellacked. 
A  convenient  tray  for  amateurs  is  the  "  Waterbnry  "  tray,  of 
a  size  large  enough  to  float  a  whole  sheet  at  a  time. 

Lift  the  sheet  to  be  floated  by  two  opposite  corners,  with 
the  film*side  down,  and  let  it  touch  the  bath  first  near  one  end. 


4G  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Lower  the  rest  of  the  sheet  smoothly  and  quickly  until  it  all 
rests  upon  the  bath.  Across  each  end  lay  a  light  piece  of  wood, 
until  the  curling  of  the  edges  has  ceased.  These  edges  may 
easily  be  kept  down  also  by  breathing  upon  them.  As  soon  as 
possible,  each  corner  of  the  sheet  should  be  lifted  and  bubbles 
of  air  adhering  to  the  film  should  be  broken  with  a  glass  rod, 
or  blown  away  by  a  smart  current  of  breath.  JSTo  drops  of  the 
solution  should  be  spattered  upon  the  top  of  the  sheet.  The 
albumen  paper  commonly  sold  in  the  market  should  be  floated 
about  two  minutes  in  winter,  and  a  minute  and  a  quarter  or  a 
minute  and  a  half  in  summer.  For  printing  with  weak  nega- 
tives, the  floating  should  be  somewhat  longer. 

Withdraw  the  sheet  by  grasping  two  corners  with  wooden 
clips  and  hold  it  over  the  bath  to  drain.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  draw  the  sheet  over  a  glass  rod  fixed  across  one  end  of 
the  tray.  This  scoops  all  superficially  hanging  silver  back  into 
the  bath.  The  sheets  may  now  be  pressed  between  pieces  of 
blotting  paper  and  hung  up  to  dry,  being  supported  by  the 
clips  to  stretched  twine  or  across  wooden  rods.  The  drying 
should,  of  course,  take  place  in  the  darkness,  or  in  extremely 
weak  light. 

The  albumenized  side  of  the  paper,  either  before  or  after 
sensitizing,  should  not  be  handled  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  cutting  it  to  the  proper  size.  The  hands  should 
be  clean  and  dry.  The  sensitized  paper  soon  becomes  discol- 
ored and  is  seldom  in  its  best  condition  after  twenty-four 
hours.  In  cold,  dry  weather,  however,  it  will  keep  well  for 
several  days. 

FUMING. 

The  sensitized  paper,  after  being  thoroughly  dried,  by  arti- 
ficial heat  or  otherwise,  should,  before  printing,  be  exposed  for 
a  time  to  the  fumes  of  ammonia.  The  ammonia  is  useful  in 
absorbing  the  free  chlorine  that  is  evolved  during  the  exposure 
of  the  paper  to  the  sunlight.  To  this  end,  secure  an  old  box 
that  is  two  or  three  feet  long  and  half  as  wide  and  deep. 
Paste  black  or  brown  paper  over  the  cracks,  and  set  the  box 
on  end.  The  front  should  be  removable,  and  might  conven- 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMENIZED    PAPER.  47 

iently  work  with  a  hinge.  It  should  tit  pretty  accurately,  and 
around  the  margins  it  would  be  well  to  tack  a  strip  of  cloth. 
Instead  of  this  wooden  front,  a  large  piece  of  pasteboard  or 
blotting  paper  might  be  used,  it  being  crowded  in  at  the  edges 
and  the  whole  box  then  covered  with  a  cloth. 

Provide  the  box  with  a  false  bottom  placed  about  two  inches 
above  the  real  one.  This  may  consist  of  a  porous  cloth 
stretched  across,  or  of  a  perforated  thin  board  or  pasteboard. 
The  perforations  should  be  numerous. 

The  paper  is  placed  in  the  box  by  putting  two  sheets  back  to 
back  and  hanging  them,  by  means  of  clips  provided  with 
hooks,  to  twine  stretched  back  and  forth  across  the  top  of  the 
box  ;  or,  the  sheets,  back  to  back,  may  be  pinned  through  the 
corners  to  the  sides  and  top  of  the  box.  A  large  number  of 
sheets  may  be  fumed  at  one  time.  When  all  are  in  place,  put 
a  shallow  tray  or  plate  containing  strong  ammonia  under  the 
perforated  bottom  and  close  the  front.  The  paper  should 
fume  about  fifteen  minutes  in  warm  weather,  and  nearly 
double  the  time  in  cold  weather.  After  fuming,  a  short  time 
should  elapse  before  printing,  to  allow  the  paper  that  is  moist 
with  the  fumes  of  ammonia  to  contract  and  resume  its  normal 
size. 

PRINTING. 

The  word  "printing,"  as  used  in  Photography,  is  a  mis- 
nomer. The  word,  as  seen  in  its  etymology,  means,  properly, 
to  take  an  impression  by  some  mechanical  means.  But  photo- 
graphic "  printing  "  is  a  process  of  reproduction  by  a  chemical 
change  that  is  effected  in  a  sensitized  surface  through  the 
agency  of  light ;  and  might  therefore  be  more  properly  styled 
"copying,"  after  the  manner  of  the  Germans.  The  only 
mechanical  changes  involved  are  such  as  serve  to  bring  the 
sensitive  surface  into  proper  relation  to  the  actinic  power  of 
the  light. 

A  frame  that  is  at  least  one  size  larger  than  the  negatives  to 
be  printed  from  is  a  great  convenience.  In  the  first  place,  in 
the  larger  frame  the  negative  will  be  printed  to  the  very 
margins ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  the  larger  frame  will  be  a 


48  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

great  help  if  you  desire  to  vignette  upon  your  print  clouds 
from  another  negative.  A  clear  glass  plate  of  the  same  size  as 
the  frame  may  be  used  to  support  the  smaller  negative. 

Place  the  negative  in  the  frame,  film  up,  and  upon  it  lay  the 
paper  with  the  sensitive  surface  down,  that  is,  next  to  the  neg- 
ative. Put  the  back  of  the  frame  in  its  place  and  press  it 
down  with  the  springs.  The  frame  is  now  ready  to  be  expose^ 
to  the  light. 

The  change  effected  by  the  light  in  the  sensitive  film  may 
be  expressed  by  the  formula : 

Ag  Cl  +  sunlight  =  Ag  +  Cl. 

We  see  that  free  chlorine  is  evolved  and  metallic  silver  depos- 
ited. It  is  this  fine  deposit  of  silver  that  constitutes,  by  its 
greater  or  lesser  amount,  the  lights  and  shadows  of  the  picture. 

If  the  negative  is  very  weak  and  flat,  that  is,  lacking  in  con- 
trast, it  were  better  not  to  print  by  direct  sunlight ;  otherwise, 
the  exposure  may  be  made  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  To 
effect  this,  a  wide  board  may  be  thrust  out  of  a  window  having 
a  southern  exposure.  It  is  better  yet,  however,  to  nail  together 
three  boards  in  the  form  of  a  right-angle  triangle,  and  so  place 
the  triangle  in  the  open  window  that  the  hypothenuse  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  the  sun's  rays.  Strips  may  be  nailed 
across  the  board  for  supporting  the  printing  frame. 

The  progress  of  the  printing  must  be  carefully  watched. 
Withdraw  the  frame  from  time  to  time  into  the  diffused  light 
of  the  room,  slip  the  spring,  raise  one  end  of  the  back,  and 
examine  the  print.  The  print  when  ready  to  be  taken  out 
should  be  considerably  darker  than  the  finished  picture  is  to 
be.  This  excess  of  blackness  will  disappear  in  the  subsequent 
washing  and  fixing.  Rather  weak  and  flat  negatives  should  be 
printed  especially  dark,  as  they  lose  more  of  their  depth  in 
subsequent  operations.  Experience  alone  will  determine  just 
how  long  to  continue  the  exposure  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
results. 

WASHING  THE  PRINTS. 

.  The  washing  may  be  performed  in  a  japanned  or  porcelain 
tray.     Lay  the  prints  one  by  one  face  down  into  the  tray  and 


PRINTING    ON    ALBUMENIZED    PAPER.  49 

press  them  beneath  the  water.  Twenty-five  or  thirty  may  be 
\vashed  at  a  time.  After  being  placed  in  the  tray  they  should 
be  moved  by  slipping  them  from  the  bottom  and  placing  them 
upon  the  top.  After  standing  eight  or  ten  minutes  the  water 
may  be  poured  off  and  a  fresh  supply  added.  The  same 
manipulation  should  be  performed  with  each  washing  as  with 
the  first.  Into  the  fourth  wash  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  satu- 
rated solution  of  sodic  bicarbonate  and  half  an  ounce  of 
saturated  solution  of  common  salt  may  be  placed.  The  soda 
will  bring  the  prints  into  an  alkaline  condition  that  is  favor- 
able to  the  action  of  the  toning-bath.  The  prints  should 
remain  in  this  mixture  not  more  than  five  minutes,  and  should 
then  be  well  rinsed.  They  are  then  ready  for  the 

TONING-BATH. 

The  office  of  the  gold  toning-bath  is  to  substitute  for  the 
reddish,  disagreeable  color  of  the  print  a  bluish  or  brownish 
black.  The  chemical  change  involved  is  not  at  present  very 
well  understood. 

It  is  a  prime  requisite  of  any  toning-bath  that  it  be  slightly, 
but  decidedly,  alkaline.  It  should  be  tested  from  time  to  time 
with  litmus  paper,  especially  if  it  does  not  act  properly. 

Many  toning-baths  are  in  use  and  they  differ  somewhat  in 
results.  We  will  describe  but  one  or  two. 

STOCK  SOLUTION. 

Water  ................  ...........................  15  ounces 

Chloride  of  gold  and  sodium  .....................  15  grains 

To  make  up  a  toning-bath  for  twenty  prints,  take 

Water  ...........................................  10  ounces 

Sodic  bicarbonate  .............................  ...  3  grains 

Sodic  chloride  (common  salt)  ....................  6 

Stock  solution  of  gold  ...........................  3  ounces  * 

A  good  pinch  of  sodic  bicarbonate  and  of  sodic  chloride  will  be 
sufficiently  accurate.  To  this  bath  add  three  ounces  of  the 
stock  solution  of  gold  that  has  first  received  three  drops  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  This  last  is  to  main- 
tain the  alkalinity  of  the  bath. 


3  5 

1  7 


50  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Another  excellent  toning-bath  is  as  follows  : 
STOCK  SOLUTION. 

Water  ........................................   15  ounces 

Chloride  of  gold  and  sodium  .................  .  .  .15  grains 

Pour  three  ounces  of  the  stock  solution  into  the  toning-tray 
and  render  it  slightly  alkaline  by  carefully  adding  a  saturated 
solution  of  sodic  bicarbonate.  Then  add  a  pint  of  water  and 
about  twenty  grains  of  sodic  acetate.  After  standing  half  an 
hour  this  bath  will  be  ready  for  use. 

Lay  *the  prints  in  the  bath  one  by  one,  face  down,  and  move 
them  continually,  so  as  to  avoid  sticking  together  of  the  prints, 
and  consequent  unevenness  of  tone.  Ten  or  twelve  may  be 
toned  at  one  time,  and  as  these  are  taken  out  others  may  be 
added.  If  the  bath  becomes  very  weak  and  slow  in  its  action, 
provided  excessive  cold  be  not  the  cause,  more  gold  should  be 
added. 

In  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  the  reddish  color  should  begin  to 
disappear  and  to  be  gradually  succeeded  by  a  rich  purplish 
black  in  the  shadows.  The  prints  should  not  be  withdrawn 
from  the  bath  until  this  stage  has  been  reached.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  should  never  lie  so  long  as  to  acquire  a  bluish  or 
slaty  color. 

As  heat  accelerates  chemical  action,  it  is  important  that  the 
bath  be  kept  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  the  room,  sixty- 
five  or  seventy  degrees.  To  effect  this  the  toning-tray  may 
be  set  on  a  hot  soapstone  ;  or,  better  yet,  as  some  one  has  sug- 
gested, the  tray  may  be  set  across  a  small  open  cask,  in  the  bot- 
tom of  which  stands  a  burning  lamp  ;  but  the  bath  must  not 
be  overheated.  The  prints  must  be  examined  in  light  strong 
enough  to  enable  the  operator  to  judge  accurately  of  the  tone. 
After  thorough  rinsing  the  prints  are  ready  for  the 

FIXING-BATH. 

The  office  of  the  fixing-bath  is  to  dissolve  the  silver  chloride 
not  acted  upon  by  light  ;  without  which  the  picture  is  subject 
to  further  light-action,  will  consequently  not  retain  its  bril- 
liancy and  definition,  and  will,  in  fact,  assume  a  dark  color  all 
over. 




FEINTING    ON   ALBUMENIZED    PAPER.  51 

One  of  the  products  of  the  fixing  process  is  a  double  salt, 
the  argento-sodic  hyposulphite,  wftich  is  again  soluble  in  an 
excess  of  sodium  hyposulphite,  and  must  be  totally  removed 
from  the  print  by  subsequent  washing,  to  secure  its  perfect 
permanency. , 

The  following  bath  is  recommended: 

Water ". ". 1  gallon 

Sodic  hyposulphite 1  pound  /Jj^  *t   > 

Sodic  bicarbonate 1  tablespoonful 

Common  salt 1  " 

.The  prints  should  be  placed  in  the  bath  one  by  one,  enough 
of  the  liquid  being  used  to  cover  them  well.  Move  them  fre- 
quently, as  in  toning,  to  prevent  sticking  together.  They 
should  lie  in  the  bath  not  less  than  fifteen  minutes.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  prolong  the  time  to  twenty  minutes,  if  the  bath  is  rather 
cool.  The  bath  should  be  made  up  some  hours  or  days  before- 
hand, as  the  dissolving  of  the  crystals  lowers  the  temperature 
materially.  The  fixing-bath  should  be  thrown  away  after  once 
using.  The  fixing-tray  should,  under  no  circumstances,  be 
used  for  any  other  purpose. 

To  insure  against  blistering,  it  is  well  to  transfer  the  prints 
from  the  fixing-bath  into  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt,  in 
which  they  may  lie  three  of  four  minutes. 

They  are  then  ready  for  their  final 

WASHING. 

A  limited  number  may  be  washed  well  enough  in  a  tray. 
Hock  the  tray  occasionally,  or  move  the  prints  by  continually 
slipping  out  the  bottom  one,  and  placing  it  upon  the  top.  The 
water  should  be  changed  seven  or  eight  times,  and  during  the 
earlier  part  of  the  process  the  changes  should  be  more  frequent 
than  during  the  latter  part.  A  thorough  elimination  of  the 
fixing  solution  is  essential  to  the  permanence  of  the  photo- 
graph. There  is  little  danger,  therefore,  of  continuing  the 
washing  too  long.  Some  even  allow  water  to  run  over  the 
prints  all  night.  It  is  supposed  by  many,  however,  that?  an  ex- 
cessively prolonged  soaking  in  water  weakens  the  print. 


52  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

The  object  of  washing  the  print  is  to  remove  from  it  all  sodic 
hyposulphite  and  the  derivatives  of  the  fixing  process.  A  test 
for  perfect  elimination  is  the  iodide  of  starch  paper  of  dark 
purple  color,  which,  when  brought  into  contact  with  prints,  or 
the  water  dripping  from  them,  will  bleach  immediately  if  only 
a  trace  of  hyposulphite  be  present. 

To  remove  these  last  traces  of  the  obnoxious  salt,  a  table- 
spoonful  of  Flandreau's  S.  P.  C.  Hypo  Eliminator,  added  to 
one  quart  of  the  last  washing  water,  and  allowing  the  prints 
to  remain  therein  for  a  few  moments,  and  then  rinsing  them 
off  again  with  pure  water,  will  effect  a  thorough  elimination, 
without  which  albumenized  paper  prints  will  always  be  liable 
to  turn  yellow  or  to  fade. 

The  eliminator  should  not  be  used  in  large  proportions,  as  by 
too  strong  solutions  the  whole  silver  deposit  might  suffer. 


LESSON  VIII. 
PRINTING    ON    VARIOUS    OTHER     PAPERS. 

FEINTING  ON  HEADY-SENSITIZED  SILVERED  PAPER. 

WE  have  learned  in  the  previous  lesson  how  to  sensitize 
albumen  paper,  how  to  print  upon  it,  and  how  to  tone  and  fix 
prints  which  have  been  made  upon  it. 

For  the  convenience  of  professional  photographers,  as  well 
as  for  amateurs,  a  brand  of  paper,  albumenized  and  sensi- 
tized in  the  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  quite  ready  for  print- 
ing, is  now  in  the  market,  and  extensively  used.  This  paper, 
being  capable  of  giving  universally  good  results,  exempts  the 
operator  from  annoyances  often  encountered  when  silvering 
paper,  it  is  of  especial  value  to  the  student,  and  some  of  our 
attention  should,  therefore,  be  given  to  the  mode  of  working 
with  it. 

We  have  learned  how  to  sensitize  albumenized  paper,  and 
how  to  fume  it  in  the  vapors  of  ammonia  preparatory  to  print- 
ing. With  the  paper  before  us,  the  first  operation  is  dispensed 
with ;  the  second,  however,  becomes  an  absolute  necessity. 

Before  we  advance  further,  it  will  be  interesting  to  examine 
the  reasons  for  which  the  photo-chemist  has  been  induced  to 
prepare  ready- sensitized  paper,  and  how  it  is  done.  Sensitive 
paper  does  not  keep  in  good  working  condition  for  any  length 
of  time,  in  fact,  through  the  influence  of  such  adverse  circum- 
stances as  heat,  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  or  air  tainted  with 
certain  gases,  it  will  lose  its  brilliant  whiteness,  assume  a  yel- 
lowish tint,  and  will  finally  turn  to  a  brown  color,  and  thus 
become  unfit  for  photographic  printing.  The  theories  upon 
which  these  changes  are  based,  as  well  as  those  explaining  the 
other  processes  connected  with  printing,  we  shall  consider  in  a 
future  lesson ;  be  it  sufficient  now  to  say  that  the  desire  to  ob- 


54  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

tain  a  more  durable  sensitive  paper  lias  resulted  in  the  ready- 
sensitized  paper  before  us. 

When  floating  a  sheet  of  salted  and  albumenized  paper  upon 
silver  solution,  the  chloride  in  the  albumen  film  converts  the 
silver  nitrate  to  a  chloride,  the  decomposition  of  which  sub- 
stance, by  light,  gives  us  the  photographic  picture.  In  remov- 
ing the  sheet  from  the  silver-bath,  much  of  the  solution  ad- 
heres to  the  paper,  dries  there,  and  assists  afterwards  consider- 
ably in  making  the  print.  This  same  silver  prevents  the  paper 
from  being  durable  or  retaining  its  whiteness,  and  must  be  re- 
moved unless  the  paper  be  used  the  same  day.  This  is  done 
by  washing  it  in  water  after  the  chlorification  has  been  thor- 
oughly effected.  In  that  state,  we  have  upon  the  sheet  a  film 
of  the  organic  silver  albuminate,  finely  interspersed  with 
silver  chloride.  To  prevent  a  decomposition  of  these  bodies 
by  atmospheric  influences  or  high  temperature,  the  back  of  the 
paper  is  coated  with  other  chemicals,  like  citric  acid,  citrates, 
nitrites,  sulphites,  and  carbonated  alkalis;  the  latter  being 
probably  the  most  effective  of  all.  Without  this  precaution 
the  washing  away  of  the  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver  would  be 
of  no  benefit  to  the  paper,  and  it  would  be  likely  to  turn  color 
in  time. 

The  ready-sensitized  paper  of  commerce,  as  we  purchase  it 
from  the  dealer,  may  possibly  give,  under  a  very  strong  and 
dense  negative,  a  tolerably  good  print,  but  to  secure  good  im- 
pressions from  comparatively  feeble  negatives,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  fume  it  in  the  vapors  of  ammonia.  The  effects 
produced  by  fuming  cannot  be  the  same  as  upon  unwashed 
paper,  as,  without  the  presence  of  free  nitrate  of  silver,  the 
respective  combination  cannot  form,  and  the  ammonia  will  act 
only  as  an  absorber  of  the  chlorine  gas,  which,  during  print- 
ing, is  liberated  from  the  chloride  of  silver  by  the  action  of 

light. 

The  great  amount  of  acid  matter  employed  to  make  the 
paper  durable,  requires  the  aid  of  alkalis  to  establish  that  state 
of  neutrality  requisite  in  printing  upon  albumenized  paper. 
Hence  we  understand  how  fuming  assists  to  gain  the  desired 
result,  and  the  importance  of  fuming  ready-sensitized  paper 


FEINTING    ON    VARIOUS    OTHER    PAPERS.  55 

cannot  be  too  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the 
student. 

If  printed  copies  are  well  preserved  from  humid  air,  toning 
may  be  deferred  to  a  convenient  time,  or  until  a  sufficient 
number  of  prints  has  accumulated. 

TONING,  FIXING,  AND  WASHING 

does  not  differ  from  the  processes  as  described  before,  but  it  will 
be  interesting  to  all  to  learn  of  the  toning-bath,  which  has  been 
worked  with  such  good  success  by  the  practicing  classes  of  the 
Chautauqua  School,  and  by  which  equally  good  tones  have 
been  obtained  upon  ready-sensitized  and  freshly-prepared  albu- 
men paper. 

The  washing  of  the  prints  before  toning  should  be  conducted 
with  all  possible  care  and  attention.  It  may  be  done  either 
by  subjecting  them,  for  at  least  fifteen  minutes,  to  a  continuous 
stream  of  water,  or  to  half-a-dozen  changes  of  water  at  in- 
tervals of  ten  minutes.  If,  toward  the  end  of  the  washing,  a 
slight  amount  of  alkali,  say  ordinary  washing  soda,  be  added, 
the  prints  will  be  better  disposed  to  receive  the  gold  of  the 
toning-bath. 

As  a  rule,  ready-sensitized  paper  requires  but  a  very  slight 
over-printing.  Long  continued  toning,  possibly  with  a  view  to 
bleach  out  prints  when  too  dark,  is  detrimental  to  the  general 
tone ;  it  turns  the  whites  to  a  sickly  gray,  depriving  the  print 
of  its  brilliancy. 

After  sufficient  washing,  toning  may  be  commenced.  The 
gold  bath,  to  which  experts  have  given  the  name  "  Chautauqua 
Toning-Bath,"  is  prepared  about  thirty  minutes  before  use, 
and  is  as  follows : 

Make  a  stock  solution  of  fifteen  grains  of  chloride  of  gold 
and  sodium  in  fifteen  ounces  of  water,  of  which  two  ounces 
are  poured  into  the  toning-tray — best  of  a  light  material,  porce- 
lain or  white  agate  ware. 

Chloride  of  gold  reacts  acid,  but  as  it  does  not  tone  in  that 
condition,  it  must  be  rendered  neutral,  or  slightly  alkaline. 
Test  with  blue  litmus  paper ;  acidity  changes  the  color  to  red, 
alkalines  restore  the  blue.  Neutralize  the  acid  gold  solution  by 


56  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

adding  gradually,  in  small  portions,  a  saturated  solution  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda,  till  the  bluing  of  the  litmus  test  paper  in- 
dicates neutrality.  When  in  that  state,  ten  grains  of  acetate 
of  soda  are  added,  and  when  dissolved  the  solution  must  be 
diluted  with  not  less  than  eighteen  ounces  of  water,  before 
prints  can  be  subjected  to  its  action. 

Fixing,  washing,  and  hypo-elimination  are  the  same  as  with 
prints  made  on  freshly-prepared  paper. 

PRINTING  ON  PLAIN  PAPER. 

The  term  "  plain  paper "  signifies  photographic  positive 
paper,  as  it  comes  direct  from  the  paper  mills,  without  having 
undergone  any  preparation  for  future  use,  such  as  salting,  al- 
bumenizing,  or  extra  sizing. 

If  photographs  on  paper  are  to  be  finely  finished  in  aquarell, 
sepia,  India  ink,  or  similar  pigments,  albumenized,  or  otherwise 
prepared  surfaces  present  to  the  artist  a  variety  of  difficulties, 
among  which  stands  foremost  its  gloss  and  hardness,  repelling 
the  aqueous  mixture  of  color  substances  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  make  it  extremely  difficult,  even  impossible,  in  some  cases, 
to  wash  in  large  surfaces,  to  blend  colors  into  each  other,  or  to 
build  up  intensity  by  repeated  application  of  shades,  Non- 
albumenized  paper  is  also  more  pleasing  to  the  artist,  to 
whom  the  photograph  serves  as  a  sketch,  or  base,  to  work 
upon,  and  is  much  used  by  landscape,  still-life,  and  portrait 
artists. 

Plain  paper  is  absolutely  necessary  when  photographic 
half-tones  are  to  be  reduced  into  a  system  of  lines,  stipple  or 
cross  hatchings  for  reproductions  in  high  relief  for  mechanical 
printing  methods,  for  a  variety  of  transfers,  and  the  photo- 
graphic tracing  processes,  which  will  be  considered  further  on. 

Plain  paper  is,  of  course,  subjected  to  somewhat  different 
treatment  from  that  of  our  old  friend,  the  albumenized  paper, 
and  of  the  great  variety  of  methods  practiced  we  select  two 
which  have  been  generally  approved  of  by  professional  photog- 
raphers. 

No.  1.  A. — Make  a  solution  of  300  grains  of  chloride  of  am- 


PRINTING    ON    VARIOUS    OTHER    PAPERS.  57 

% 

monium  in  one  gallon  of  water,  and  soak  the  paper  in  it  for  a 
minute  or  two,  being  careful  to  avoid  air  bubbles.  Then  hang 
up  and  dry. 

B. — Dissolve  one  and  a-half  ounces  of  crystallized  nitrate  of 
silver  in  fifteen  ounces  of  soft  or  distilled  water.  Divide  the 
solution  into  three  parts  ;  set  one  of  them  aside,  and  add  to  the 
two-thirds  remaining,  aqua  ammonia  fortior  till  the  yellowish 
brown  precipitate  formed  is  redissolved  in  an  excess  of  the  pre- 
cipitant, being  careful  to  add  only  enough  ammonia  to  render 
the  solution  perfectly  clear  again,  and  without  exhibiting  more 
than  only  a  perceptible  odor.  To  this  ammonio-nitrate  of  sil- 
ver solution  add  the  third  of  the  original  solution  set  aside, 
which  will  cause  a  strong  turbition  of  the  liquid,  but  which 
will  vanish  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  glacial  acetic 
acid.  Then  filter. 

The  salted  paper  may  be  floated  upon  this  solution  for  two  or 
three  minutes,  or  what  is  preferred  by  most  practitioners,  the 
solution  may  be  spread  over  the  paper,  fastened  with  pins  upon  a 
clean  board,  either  with  a  tuft  of  clean  cotton  wool,  or  a  Buckle's 
brush.  After  the  paper  has  been  thoroughly  sensitized  and 
dried  in  the  dark-room,  it  may  be  cut  to  the  required  size  and 
printed  upon  in  the  usual  way. 

Plain  paper  had  best  be  toned  and  fixed  in  one  operation,  to 
secure  vigorous  and  brilliant  prints. 

Dissolve  fifteen  grains  of  pure  terchloride  of  gold  in  seven 
and  a-half  ounces  of  distilled  water,  and  add  it  drop  by  drop, 
and  by  constant  stirring  up  to  a  solution  of  two  ounces  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  in  twelve  ounces  of  distilled  water.  If  properly 
prepared  this  solution  remains  perfectly  clear  and  limpid ;  if 
brown  or  yellow,  it  is  unfit  for  use. 

Of  this  gold  stock  solution  add  three  ounces  to  fifteen 
ounces  of  a  ten  per-cent.  hypo  solution,  and  mix  well.  Prints 
without  a  previous  washing  are  immersed  therein.  It  fixes 
and  tones  simultaneously,  although  it  requires  a  much  longer 
time  to  obtain  neutral  or  black  tones.  Plain  paper  prints  have 
shown  with  this  method  a  great  durability. 

No.  2. — A  printing  method  upon  plain  paper  was  given 
by  Mr.  Hardwich  as  early  as  1856,  but  has  for  its  extremely 


58  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

tine  qualities  been  retained  to  the  present  day.  Based  upon 
the  presence  of  citrate  of  silver  in  the  sensitizer,  any  variety  of 
warmer  tones,  almost  to  a  positive  red,  can  be  obtained  with 
it,  and  it  is  therefore  especially  commendable  for  the  use  of  the 
artist.  Take  of 

Pure  citric  acid 100  grains 

Chloride  of  ammonium 100  grains 

Gelatine,  previously  swelled  in  cold  water 10  grains 

.  Water 10  ounces 

The  gelatine  is  used  to  retain  the  layer  of  sensitive  salt  at 
the  surface  of  the  paper,  but  it  does  not  affect  the  tint. 

Dissolve  the  citric  acid  in  a  small  portion  of  water,  and  neu- 
tralize with  carbonate  of  soda;  the  quantity  (of  common  wash- 
ing soda)  required  for  100  grains  of  citric  acid  is  228  grains; 
add  the  alkali  cautiously,  with  continual  stirring,  until  the  last 
portions  produce  no  further  effervescence,  and  the  immersed 
litmus  paper,  previously  reddened  by  the  acid,  begins  to 
change  to  blue. 

The  best  paper  for  this  method  is  the  "  Papier  Saxe,"  one 
side  of  which  is  to  be  floated  for  two  minutes  upon  this  salt- 
ing-bath. Owing  to  the  gelatine,  it  is  preferable  to  heat  it 
slightly. 

Render  sensitive  upon  a  neutral  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
50  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  allowing  three  minutes  con- 
tact. The  sensibility  to  light  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  al- 
bumenized,  but  greater  than  plain  paper,  sensitized  with  am- 
monio-nitrate  of  silver. 

"When  the  proof  is  removed  from  the  printing-frame  it  is  of 
a  brown  or  purple  tint,  which  becomes  bright  red  when 
immersed  in  a  plain  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda.  Red 
prints  of  this  sort  are  very  popular  for  certain  engraving  or 
photo-engraving  purposes,  but  to  make  them  adaptable  for  sub- 
sequent operations,  they  must  be  kept  from  the  influence  of 
the  gold  bath. 

Toning  and  fixing  in  one  operation,  may  be  done  with  the 
previously  described  gold  and  hypo  bath,  but  prints  should  be 
first  washed  in  water,  to  which  a  trace  of  common  salt  has 
been  added,  in  order  to  remove  all  free  nitrate  of  silver  from 


FEINTING    ON    VARIOUS    OTHER    PAPERS.  50 

them.  Aqua  ammonia,  if  substituted  for  the  salt  in  the 
washing,  prevents  changing  of  tones  when  being  dried.  Any 
variety  of  tones,  from  rich  violet  purple  to  positive  black,  are 
easily  obtained,  and  the  pictures  are  especially  distinguished  by 
their  brilliant  whites. 

The  Chautauqua  Toning-Bath  may  also  be  employed  for 
toning  these  plain  prints.  Gold  acts  upon  them  with  great 
rapidity,  and  it  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  use  the  normal  bath, 
in  a  diluted  state.  As  weak  gold  gives  invariably  the  best  re- 
sults, the  dilution  might  be  with  plain  paper  in  the  proportion 
of  1:3. 

Fixing  plain  paper,  when  toned  in  the  alkaline  bath,  requires 
no  further  admonition ;  no  other  precautions  than  those  with 
albumenized  paper  being  required.  Washing  and  hypo  elim- 
ination are  also  the  same ;  but  it  will  be  observed  that  hy- 
posulphite of  soda  is  much  easier  and  sooner  removed  from 
plain  paper  prints  than  from  albumenized  paper. 

CYANOTYPES  OR  "BLUE"  PRINTS. 

We  have  seen  how  to  make  photographic  prints  upon  sil- 
vered paper,  and  we  have  received,  with  those  methods,  tones 
of  various  colors,  from  a  warm  brown  to  a  positive  black. 
There  is  another  kind  of  print  made,  not  with  the  aid  of  the 
salts  of  silver,  but  with  a  certain  iron-combination,  known  by 
the  name  of  red  prussiate  of  potash,  whose  tones  are  of  a 
beautiful  and  intense  blue.  They  have  gained  immense  popu- 
larity on  account  of  the  ease  and  the  simplicity  of  the  making. 

The  labor  required  to  make  silver  photographs,  even  when 
printed  upon  ready-sensitized  paper,  consists  of  seven  distinct 
operations  before  a  print  is  ready  to  be  mounted.  "  Blue  "  or 
cyanotype  paper  requires  but  one ;  a  simple  washing  in  water. 

The  color  of  these  prints,  if  properly  made,  is  not  unpleas- 
ant, but,  on  the  contrary,  is  quite  attractive,  and  collections  of 
photographs  interspersed  with  them  offer  a  very  attractive 
variation. 

Like  the  ready-sensitized  chloride  of  silver  paper,  the  cyano- 
type paper  has  become  an  article  of  trade,  and  is  manufactured 
and  sold  in  enormous  quantities,  cut  up  into  sizes  to  corre- 


60  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

spond  with  the  negative  plates  made  with  the  cameras  of  the 
American  Optical  Company  and  other  manufacturers. 

All  that  is  necessary  to  produce  a  blue  print  is  to  bring  the 
prepared  side  of  the  paper  into  absolute  contact  with  the  nega- 
tive, expose  to  light,  and  wash. 

Besides  being  able  to  make  a  blue  print,  the  student  should 
learn  how  to  prepare  the  paper,  and  become  acquainted  with 
the  conditions  required  to  produce  a  sensitive  and  durable 
article.  In  the  first  place,  a  paper  of  any  fine  texture,  free 
from  any  chemical  bleaching  agents  or  their  antidotes  is 
wanted.  There  is  none  so  well  adapted  for  this  purpose  as 
the  "  papier  Saxe  "  or  the  "  Rives."  Its  sizing  is  quite  impor- 
tant, and  although  the  ordinary  commercial  paper  answers 
quite  well,  it  is  advisable  to  give  it  a  stronger  body,  by  im- 
mersing it  in  albumen  beaten  to  a  froth,  and  allowed  to  settle 
again  for  the  separation  of  the' clear  liquid.  Four  parts  of 
water  mixed  with  one  part  of  the  clarified  albumen  is  a  good 
proportion.  After  leaving  the  paper  in  this  mixture  for  a 
minute,  it  may  be  hung  up  to  dry  spontaneously,  and  the  albu- 
men may  be  coagulated  by  placing  the  paper  in  a  steam  chest 
or  by  hanging  it  up  near  a  very  hot  stove. 

For  sensitizing  the  paper  we  prepare  two  solutions : 

A. — Citrate  of  iron  and  ammonia 1%  ounce. 

Water 8      ounces. 

B. — Red  prussiate  of  potash 1^  ounce. 

Water 8      ounces. 

Filter  and  keep  separate  in  the  dark-room.  Before  use, 
equal  volumes  of  these  are  mixed  together  and  poured  into  a 
flat  dish  or  tray.  After  all  foam  or  air-bubbles  have  disap- 
peared, the  paper  is  floated  upon  this  solution  for  three  min- 
utes, observing  the  same  precaution  required  in  silvering  albu- 
men paper.  Then  hang  up  to  dry. 

All  this  is  done  in  the  dark-room,  or  in  a  much  subdued  light. 
When  dry,  the  paper  is  printed  at  once,  or  it  may  be  preserved 
for  future  use.  If  intended  to  be  kept  for  a  length  of  time, 
the  pieces  of  the  required  size  are  best  brought  into  close  con- 
tact with  each  other,  wrapped  up  in  waxed  or  paraffin  paper 


FEINTING    ON    VARIOUS    OTHER    PAPERS.  61 

and  subjected  to  a  slight  pressure.  This  is  done  to  prevent 
moisture  or  impure  air  from  coming  into  contact  with  the  sen- 
sitive surface,  which  would  speedily  change  the  original  green- 
ish-yellow color  to  a  muddy  greenish-blue,  denoting  a  chemical 
decomposition.  Paper  having  undergone  such  a  change  is  not 
easy  to  print  upon.  It  prints  slow,  for  it  has  lost  much  of  its 
sensitiveness,  the  shadow  parts  of  the  negative  do  not  print  out 
in  detail,  and  to  obtain  pure  whites  is  quite  impossible. 

The  mode  of  printing  being  the  same  as  that  upon  other 
sensitive  substances,  requires  necessarily  absolute  contact. 
Printing  in  sunlight  is  advisable,  and  the  operation  should  be 
carried  far  enough  to  give  the  darkest  parts,  that  is,  those  un- 
der the  clearest  parts  of  the  negative,  a  decided  reddish  bronze 
color.  "When  completed,  the  print  is  removed  from  the  press 
and  washed  in  pure  water,  till  the  picture  is  perfectly  devel- 
oped, and  stands  out  with  a  beautiful  blue  tone  upon  a  white 
ground. 

When  the  water  dripping  from  it  ceases  to  be  of  a  yellow 
tinge,  the  operation  is  completed,  and  the  result  is  a  permanent 
and  durable  picture  which  is  not  affected  by  light  and  but 
little  by  atmospheric  influences. 

A  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  intensifies  the  blue  color, 
and  a  little  sulphuric  acid  gives  it  a  greenish  tint.  Ammonia 
gives  it  a  purple  color,  and  renders  the  picture  lighter,  and  can 
be  used,  therefore,  to  reduce  a  print  if  too  dark. 

Blue  paper  is  extensively  used  for  the  reproducing  of  tracings 
and  drawings.  The  copies  are  naturally  negatives,  that  is,  the 
black  lines  of  the  original  appear  white  upon  a  blue  ground. 
Although  the  general  effect  of  the  picture  is  thus  reversed, 
blue  printing  has  found  just  in  this  particular  line  its  most 
extensive  employment. 

The  tourist,  anxious  to  see  a  proof  of  his  negative,  can 
judge  of  its  general  qualities  when  printed  upon  cyanotype 
paper  without  resorting  to  the  troublesome  silver  printing  and 
gold  toning  ;  and  many  amateurs  are  so  partially  inclined  to- 
ward blue  prints  that  they  even  admit  them  to  their  albums. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  convert  blue  prints  into  prints  of 
other  colors,  especially  those  of  dark  brown  or  black  shades, 


62  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

but  they  have,  according  to  all  reliable  authorties,  signally 
failed.  An  old  method  for  changing  color  is  to  bleach  the 
blue  by  means  of  a  carbonated  alkali,  leaving  upon  the  paper 
a  deposit  of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  which  is  afterwards  developed 
with  tannic  or  gallic  acid.  Clear  whites  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  obtain,  and  the  general  tone  of  the  transferred  print 
may  be  acceptable  to  some,  but  it  certainly  is  not  to  the 
general  public. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash,  in  substance  or  in  solution,  is  sensi- 
tive to  light,  and  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  the  dark. 

The  citrate  of  iron  and  ammonia  is  very  hygroscopic,  and 
when  exposed  to  air  attracts  so  much  moisture  that  it  will  be 
decomposed  and  reduced  to  a  black  pulpy  mass.  We  must, 
therefore,  keep  it  in  well-stoppered  bottles. 


LESSON  IX. 

PRINTING    ON    PERMANENT   BROMIDE    OF    SILVER 

PAPER. 

THIS  paper,  entirely  different  in  its  preparation  from  those 
we  have  already  become  acquainted  with,  is  extremely  sensitive 
to  light,  and  requires,  therefore,  but  short  exposures.  The 
mode  of  operating  is  not  the  same,  nor  similar,  to  any  of  the 
sensitive  papers  which  we  have  considered,  and  requires  an 
essentially  different  treatment.  The  picture  is  not  secured  by 
a  complete  printing-out,  but  by  development  conducted  as  in 
the  negative  processes,  and  with  chemicals  not  described  in 
previous  instructions. 

The  uses  of  the  bromide  paper  are  almost  unlimited  in  their 
variety. 

For  making  contact  prints  from  negatives  of  all  kinds,  por- 
traits, views,  interiors,  architectural  and  mechanical  subjects, 
it  is  unsurpassed,  both  for  quickness  of  execution,  and  artistic 
effect.  The  pure,  soft  black  and  gray  tones,  and  steel  engrav- 
ing effects  obtained,  and  the  absence  of  the  conventional  glossy 
surface,  usual  in  photographs,  are  points  in  its  favor  that  are 
appreciated  by  artists  and  connoisseurs  of  refined  taste. 

For  copying  patent  office  drawings,  engineers'  and  architects' 
plans,  it  surpasses  all  other  processes  in  quickness  and  quality 
of  result.  It  is  used  by  botanists  for  making  copies  of  leaves, 
etc.,  by  contact  printing. 

It  is  invaluable  for  use  in  meteorological  and  astronomical 
recording  instruments.  In  making  quick  proofs  from  wet 
negatives,  it  enables  the  photographer  to  see  his  result  without 
waiting  for  his  negative  to  dry. 

But  perhaps  the  most  important  application  of  permanent 
bromide  paper  is  to  the  process  of  enlarging,  i.  e.,  the  making 
of  large  positives  from  small  negatives. 


64  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Owing  to  its  great  sensitiveness,  it  will  receive  and  retain  an 
image  projected  upon  it  by  means  of  an  apparatus  similar  in 
principle  to  a  magic  lantern,  thus  enabling  the  photographer  to 
make  prints  of  any  size  from  small  negatives.  Such  prints 
present  the  effect  of  fine  crayon  drawings,  at  the  same  time  re- 
taining the  photographic  fidelity  of  likeness  and  detail. 

The  exposure  required  for  this  extremely  sensitive  paper 
varies  with  the  intensity  of  the  negative,  and  the  quality 
and  intensity  of  the  light,  but  may  be  approximately 
stated  to  be,  using  as  thin  negatives  as  will  make  good  prints, 
one-quarter  second  by  diffused  daylight,  or  ten  seconds  at  a 
distance  of  one  foot  from  a  No.  2  kerosene  burner.  Yery  thin 
negatives  should  be  printed  by  weak  }^ellow  light,  like  that  ob- 
tained from  a  kerosene  lamp  turned  down  a  little  below  the 
normal  intensity.  In  this  way  a  strong,  vigorous  print  may  be 
obtained  from  a  negative  that  would  otherwise  be  too  thin  and 
flat.  Strong,  intense  negatives  are  best  printed  by  daylight. 

Permanent  bromide  paper  is  manufactured  in  various  grades 
of  sensitiveness  and  surface.  For  contact  printing  of  proofs, 
for  drawings,  tracings,  or  those  from  ordinary  negatives,  the 
Eastman  "  A,"  with  smooth  surface,  is  best  adapted ;  while  for 
enlargements,  especially  when  to  be  finished  by  the  artist's  hand, 
the  "  C,"  of  rougher  grain,  is  preferred.  All  of  the  different 
grades  are  sold  cut  in  popular  sizes,  and  put  up  in  light-tight 
packages,  or  in  endless  rolls,  well  protected  against  the  action 
of  undue  light.  For  contact  printing  the  paper  is  laid  in  the 
printing  frame  upon  the  negative  as  heretofore  described,  and 
for  enlargements  is  fastened  against  the  easel,  to  be  explained 
later  on.  Owing  to  its  gelatinized  surface,  the  edges  bf  the 
paper  curl  on  the  coated  side,  and  to  make  the  developer  take 
freely  to  it,  immersion  in  water  becomes  necessary  before  de- 
velopment. When  perfectly  flattened  out,  the  water  may  be 
poured  off  and  the  developer  applied. 

FORMULA  FOR  DEVELOPER. 

1. — Oxalate  of  potash 1  pound 

Hot  water 3  pints 

Acidify  with  sulphuric  or  citric  acid.  Test  with  litmus 
paper. 


PRINTING  ON  PERMANENT  BROMIDE  OF  SILVER  PAPER.          65 

2. — Protosulphate  of  iron  1    pound 

Hot  water 1    quart 

Sulphuric  acid  (or  citric  acid,  J  ounce) •£  dram  ^  fVYft**&4 

3. — Bromide  potassium 1  dram 

Water 1  quart 

These  solutions  keep  separately,  and  mix  only  for  immediate 
use. 

Take  in  a  suitable  tray :  ~No.  1,  six  ounces ;  No.  2,  one 
ounce;  mix  in  the  order  given;  use  cold. 

The  image  should  appear  slowly,  and  should  develop  up 
strong,  clear  and  brilliant.  When  the  shadows  are  sufficiently 
black,  stop,  pour  off  the  developer,  and  flood  the  print  with 
the  clearing  solution,  consisting  of  one-quarter  of  an  ounce  of  3  tf  CC^ 
citric  acid  to  one  quart  of  water.  Repeat  washing  with  the 
acid  water  three  or  four  times,  rinse  well  with  pure  water,  and  .  y  — 

finally  fix  in  hyposulphite  of  soda,  three  ounces  of  which  is 
dissolved  in  one  pint  of  water.  When  perfectly  fixed,  which 
takes  about  ten  minutes,  wash  again,  submit  to  the  alum-bath 
and  final  washing,  which  is  greatly  accelerated  by  the  use  of 
Flandreau's  hypo  eliminator,  as  in  the  case  of  other  kinds  of 
prints. 

REMARKS  ON  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  developer  in  use  is  termed  by  photographers  the 
"ferrous  oxalate."  developer,  and  consists  in  reality  of  the 
ferrous  oxalate  dissolved  in  an  excess  of  oxalate  of  potash.  The 
mixture  should  present  a  clear,  dark-ruby  color.  If  turbid, 
too  much  of  the  iron  solution  has  been  added,  and  the  iron 
oxalate  formed  is  in  excess,  the  oxalate  of  potash  present 
cannot  keep  it  in  solution,  hence  a  part  of  the  iron  salt 
remains  undissolved,  and  precipitates  in  the  form  of  a  bright 
yellow  powder.  Such  developer  is  unfit  for  use. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  employ  oxalate  of  potash  only  when 
in  a  perfectly  neutral  state,  or  when  acidity  is  slightly  prevailing. 
An  oxalate,  reacting  alkaline,  tends  to  make  hard  and  chalky 
prints  without  half  tones,  effects  erroneously  ascribed  at  times 
to  under-exposures.  The  only  difficulty  occurring  with  bro- 
mide prints,  is  a  misjudged  time  of  exposure.  Over  and 


66  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

under-exposures  can  be  observed  with  the  ferrous  oxalate  de- 
veloper in  the  same  way  as  by  the  effects  shown  in  the  nega- 
tive process  with  pyrogallic  acid.  Under-exposure  gives  hard, 
black  and  white  prints  without  any  half  tones  or  fine  grada- 
tions. 

For  over-exposures  we  have  remedies  on  hand  by  which  we 
can  counteract  their  effects.  One  of  these  is  Bromide  of  Potas- 
sium Solution  No.  3,  which,  when  judiciously  used,  will  re- 
strain the  forcible  action  of  the  developer,  and  modify  the 
gray  tone  resulting  without  it. 

Too  much  of  it,  however,  tends  to  make  a  yellowish  or  olive 
green  tone  which  is  by  no  means  agreeable.  With  a  careless 
application  of  bromide  of  potassium  there  is  danger  of  spoiling 
the  print  entirely. 

A  better  restrainer  is  undoubtedly  a  developer  prepared 
some  time  previous  to  its  use,  and  when  it  has  attained  partly 
to  a  higher  state  of  oxidation.  Whenever  an  over-exposure 
may  be  suspected,  it  is  advisable  to  commence  development 
with  this  partly  oxidized  solution,  and  when  the  general  out- 
lines and  deeper  shadows  of  the  picture  are  fairly  out,  substi- 
tute for  it  a  freshly-made  preparation,  and  counterbalance  its 
action,  if  too  forcible,  again  with  the  old.  The  operation 
probably  requires  a  little  more  nicety  than  the  ordinary 
method,  but  the  resulting  tones  are  decidedly  better  and 
richer  than  those  resulting  from  an  excessive  use  of  bromide 
of  potassium. 

The  office  of  the  acid  clearing  solution  is  to  dissolve  the  iron 
salt  that  has  entered  into  the  pores  of  the  paper  supporting  the 
gelatine  film  during  the  development.  Without  it  the  prints 
would  be  of  a  yellowish,  muddy  color,  wanting  in  the  bril- 
liancy and  clearness  for  which  bromide  prints  are  noted. 

Permanent  bromide  prints  should  not  be  dried  between 
blotters  like  albumenized  paper,  but  should  be  hung  over  a 
line,  or  laid  back  down  upon  glass  or  clean  paper. 

ENAMELING. 

Squeegee  the  wet  print,  face  down,  on  a  polished  piece  of 
hard  rubber  or  ebonite  ;  when  dry  the  print  will  peel  off  with 


PRINTING  ON  PERMANENT  BROMIDE  OF  SILVER  PAPER.          67 

a  fine  polished  surface.     The  print  should  be  slipped  on  to  the 
rubber  plate  under  water  to  avoid  air  bubbles. 

FLEXIBLE  PRINTS. 

Permanent  bromide  prints  soaked  in  a  mixture  of  glycerine, 
five  ounces,  and  water,  twenty-five  ounces,  and  dried,  will  not 
curl,  and  may  be  used  for  book  illustrations,  unmounted.  The 
heavier  papers,  "  B  "  and  "  C,"  are  especially  adapted  for  this 
purpose. 

After  drying,  prints  may  be  straightened  by  the  scraping 
action  of  a  sharp-edged  ruler  applied  to  the  back ;  the  corner 
behind  the  ruler  being  lifted  as  the  ruler  is  passed  along. 

The  operation  of  enlarging  on  permanent  bromide  paper 
involves  the  same  principles  as  those  underlying  the  making 
of  a  negative  ;  it  is  simply  photographing  on  a  large  scale  the 
negative  instead  of  the  original.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of 
using  a  large  camera,  the  dark-room  itself  is  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  camera  body,  and  the  negative  is  placed  in  an 
opening  in  the  dark-room  shutter  so  that  all  the  light  will 
come  through  it  to  the  lens,  as  in  Fig.  1. 


FIG.  l. 

This  cut  represents  an  enlarging  apparatus  that  any  pho- 
tographer can  improvise  from  ordinary  apparatus  and  material, 
with  the  expenditure  of  a  few  hours'  time.  To  construct  it 
proceed  as  follows : 


68 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


Cut  a  hole  in  the  dark-room  shutter  two  sizes  larger  than 
the  largest  negative  to  be  enlarged  from,  fit  into  the  opening  a 
frame  about  two  or  three  inches  deep,  glazed  on  the  outside 
with  a  sheet  of  ground-glass.  On  the  inside  edges  of  the 
frame,  top  and  bottom,  arrange  grooves  in  which  to  slide  the 
negative ;  when  the  negative  is  in  position  it  will  be  bril- 
liantly illuminated  against  the  ground-glass.  Now,  on  a  table 
or  shelf,  adjusted  in  front  of  the  negative  box,  place  an  or- 
dinary camera  having  the  ground-glass  removed,  point  the  lens 
toward  the  negative,  and  connect  the  lens  and  negative  box  by 
means  of  a  bag  of  opaque  cloth,  open  at  both  ends  and  pro- 
vided with  elastic  bands  to  close  it  tightly  around  the  lens  and 
negative  box.  This  will  prevent  any  light  from  coming  into 
the  dark-room,  except  that  which  passes  through  the  lens. 
(See  Figs.  1  and  2). 

In  this  apparatus  the  camera  body  serves  no  useful  purpose  ; 
all  that  is  required  is  to  support  the  lens.  In  case  a  portrait 
lens  is  used,  it  should  be  put  in  position  so  that  the  back  lens 
will  be  next  the  negative  instead  of  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

The  easel  to  hold  the  sensitive  paper  is  the  next  requisite, 
and  this  may  be  constructed  by' fastening  a  large,  flat  board  in 
an  upright  position,  upon  a  box  of  suitable  size,  to  serve  as  a 
base,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  moved  to  and  fro  to  regulate 
the  size  of  the  enlargement.  The  face  of  the  easel  should  be 
covered  with  white  paper.  Now,  if  the  easel  is  put  in  position, 
facing  the  camera,  the  image  can  be  focused  on  the  screen  by 
sliding  the  camera  backward  or  forward  on  the  shelf. 


LENS. 


FIG.  2. 


The  size  of  the  enlargement  will  depend  upon  the  length  of 


PRINTING  ON  PERMANENT  BROMIDE  OF  SILVER  PAPER.          69 

focus  of  the  lens,  and  the  distance  the  easel  is  set  from  the 
negative. 

Any  lens  that  will  make  a  negative  can  be  used  for  enlarg- 
ing, and  the  proper  size  for  the  lens  depends  wholly  upon  the 
negative  to  be  enlarged  from,  and  not  at  all  upon  the  enlarge- 
ment to  be  made.  If  the  lens  will  cover  the  negative,  it  will 
make  an  enlargement  from  it  of  any  size. 

For  enlarging  from  negatives  5x8  inches  and  under,  a  half- 
size  portrait  lens  is  suitable.  It  can  be  worked  nearly  wide 
open  for  heads,  but  must  be  stopped  down  for  half  and  full- 
length  figures.  Rapid  rectilinear  lenses  are  also  suitable,  but, 
of  course,  do  not  work  quite  as  quickly  on  heads  as  portrait 
lenses,  because  they  have  not  as  large  apertures.  For  full  and 
half-length  figures  and  views  they  are  quite  as  rapid,  because, 
for  this  purpose,  the  portrait  lens  requires  to  be  stopped  down 
as  far  as  the  rapid  rectilinear. 

HINTS. 

Mealy  Mottled  Prints. — Over-exposure  and  short  develop- 
ment. 

Greenish  Tones  are  obtained  by  over-exposure  and  too  much 
bromide. 

Forcing  Development  does  not  give  good  results  for  the 
above  reason. 

Face  of  Permanent  Bromide  Paper  can  always  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  curling  in.  Convex  side  is  always  the  back. 

Fixing. — The  operator  can  tell  when  a  bromide  print  is  fixed 
by  looking  through  it  or  upon  it  in  a  good  light ;  unfixed  por- 
tions will  be  greenish  yellow. 

Yellow  Prints. — Prolonged  development  will  cause  yellow 
prints  by  depositing  iron  in  the  paper.  The  exposure  must  be 
correct,  so  as  to  allow  of  quick  development. 

Running  Water  is  not  so  sure  a  means  for  washing  prints  as 
changing  them  from  one  tray  to  another,  allowing  them  to  soak 
at  least  ten  minutes  in  each  fresh  water  ;  twelve  changes  are 
sufficient ;  no  less. 


70 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


THE  PERMANENCY  OF  BROMIDE  PRINTS. 


It  should  be  understood  that  a  print  on  permanent  bromide 
paper  is  a  very  different  thing  from  an  ordinary  photograph  on 
albumen  paper.  In  the  first  case,  the  image  is  produced  by 
development  upon  a  substance  containing  no  free  nitrate  of 
silver.  In  the  second  case,  the  image  is  formed  by  light  alone 
acting  upon  an  organic  compound  of  silver  in  the  presence  of 
^free  nitrate  of  silver ;  in  this  case  the  image  is  known  to  be 
unreliable  as  to  permanence,  while  in  the  case  of  the  permanent 
bromide,  all  the  evidence  points  to  as  great  a  permanence  as 
can  be  desired. 


LESSON  X. 
ARTISTIC   PRINTING. 

BUT  a  little  time  has  passed  since  the  primitive  amateur 
photographer  thought  his  duty  done  by  exposing  his  ready- 
made  dry  plates  and  leaving  to  a  "professional "  the  labor  of 
developing  and  printing.  He  has  since  discovered  that  his 
own  developing  and  printing  are  quite  as  essential  as  the  mere 
exposure,  in  order  to  reproduce  the  picture  which  he  had  in 
his  mind's  eye. 

On  the  proper  development  of  correct  and  faulty  expos- 
ures, former  lessons  have  given  instructions.  The  following 
remarks  are  intended  for  those,  who,  having  mastered  plain 
printing,  desire  to  have  some  knowledge  of  more  artistic 
methods,  viz, :  I.  Of  Printing  in  Medallion  Style ;  II.  Vig- 
netting;  III.  Flushing  or  Tinting  the  White  Back-ground; 
IV.  Combining  I.  and  II.  ;  Y.  Printing  in  Back-grounds  ;  VI. 
Printing  in  Clouds. 

PRINTING  IN  MEDALLION. 

In  order  to  print  portraits  in  medallion  style  it  will  be 
necessary  to  procure  some  metal  oval  and  circle  guides  and  a 
revolving  Robinson  print  trimmer.  It  will  be  desirable  to 
have  at  least  two  sizes  of  the  guides  for  the  carte  de  visite  and 
two  sizes  for  the  cabinet  form.  Cut  a  suitable  mask  on  orange 
post-office  paper  and  paste  it  on  the  face  of  the  negative.  This 
will  give  you  in  printing  an  oval  or  circle  with  a  white  border. 
In  order  to  tint  the  border,  paste  the  cut-out  oval  on  a  clean 
glass  of  suitable  size.  Place  your  print  on  another  glass,  ad- 
just the  "  cut-out"  face  down  over  it  and  expose  to  light,  more 
or  less  according  to  taste.  The  tinted  border  may  be  orna- 


72 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


mented  in  various  ways  by  a  piece  of  tulle  or  lace  stretched 
over  it,  etc.  ;  but  the  plain  tinted  border  will  be  the  most  satis- 
factory on  the  whole. 

FOR  VIGNETTING  PORTRAITS. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  original  should  have  been  taken 
against  a  light  (not  white)  back-ground.  If  the  back-ground  be 
too  dark,  it  must  be  lightened  artificially,  asjf.  i.,  by  covering 
the  glass  side  of  the  negative  with  ground-glass  varnish  and 
darkening  it  with  a  stump  and  black  lead,  beginning  close  to 
the  head.  Next,  cut  out  a  mask  close  to  the  figure ;  for  a 
portrait  the  pear  shape  will  be  found  most  suitable.  Cut 
the  mask,  not  in  straight,  but  in  irregular  wavy  lines,  similar  to 
the  cut  of  Weymouth's  vignetter.  Cover  your  printing  frame 


with  a  stout  card-board  into  which  a  square  or  an  oval  opening 
is  cut  out,  large  enough  to  receive  any  size  of  masks.  This  open- 
ing is  to  be  covered,  witli  a  piece  of  tissue  paper  of  even  tex- 
ture. Underneath  this  paste  your  mask  and  back  the  whole  on 
the  printing-frame,  the  tissue  paper  uppermost,  next  to  the 
light.  Adjust  the  negative  in  proper  position,  looking  through 
against  the  light ;  if  a  greater  number  of  prints  of  the  same 


ARTISTIC    PRINTING.  73 

negative  is  desired,  paste  the  negative  in  proper  position  by 
means  of  some  strips  of  glued  paper.  If,  after  printing  a 
proof,  the  gradations  of  the  vignette  should  prove  too  abrupt,  it 
may  be  remedied  by  (1)  widening  the  space  between  the  nega- 
tive and  the  mask ;  (2)  by  painting  on  the  glass  side  of  the 
negative,  with  Russian  or  indigo  blue,  a  contour  in  waving  out- 
lines according  to  taste  ;  (3)  by  encircling  the  head  with  loose 
cotton  wool,  always  on  the  glass  side  of  the  negative. 

FLUSHING. 

Flushing  or  tinting  the  white  back-ground  of  a  vignette 
will  be  of N  advantage  in  prints  from  flat  negatives.  The  dull 
lights  in  the  print  will  be  enhanced  by  subduing  the  extreme 
white  of  the  back-ground.  The  easiest  and  safest  way  to  do 
this  is  to  cut  out  a  mask  slightly  smaller  than  the  head  and 
figure  (omitting  the  shadows  caused  by  the  vignette  printing). 
Place  the  print  into  a  printing- frame,  and  over  the  glass  out- 
side you  mask  and  expose  to  light,  moving  with  a  darning- 
needle  (which  hardly  throws  any  shadow),  waxed  on-  one  end 
in  order  to  get  a  tack  on  your  cut-out  mask,  moving  it  slightly 
during  exposure. 

COMBINATION  PRINTING. 

A  combination  of  the  vignette,  plain  or  tinted,  can  then 
be  made  with  the  medallion  style,  for  which  no  further  instruc- 
tions need  be  given. 

Taste,  and  the  quality  of  the  negative,  must  guide  the  printer 
to  decide  which  of  the  described  ways  of  printing  will  show 
the  subject  to  best  advantage.  A  child's  or  a  very  young 
lady's  head  will  show  best  closely  vignetted  on  a  white  back- 
ground, while  a  gray  head  with  whiskers  will  be  most  effective 
on  a  plain,  dark  back-ground. 

PRINTING- IN  BACK-GROUNDS. 

Printing-in  back-grounds,  either  natural  or  artificial,  for 
portraits  or  groups,  is  a  more  difficult  subject,  and  will  require 
some  experimenting  before  success  can  be  attained.  The 


74  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

mode  of  operation  consists  (1)  in  obliterating  any  back-grounds 
of  your  figures  by  the  use  of  any  opaque  color  close  to  the 
figure  or  figures,  and  in  printing  them  in  proper  position  ; 
(2)  in  choosing  a  back-ground  which  is  lighted  from  the  same 
side  as  the  figures ;  (3)  in  cutting  out  masks  of  the  figures 
slightly  smaller  than  the  originals.  Now  place  your  fore- 
ground negative  into  the  printing-frame  and  your  figures  over 
it  and  close.  Cover  outside  of  the  glass  of  the  printing-frame 
the  figures  with  your  cut-out  mask  and  expose  to  light,  moving 
the  mask  as  before  directed.  The  degree  of  intensity  of  the 
back-ground  must  be  examined  from  time  to  time  in  order  to 
get  perfect  harmony  of  tone  between  figures  and  back-ground. 

PRINTING-IN  CLOUDS. 

Printing-in  clouds  into  landscape  photographs.  A  land- 
scape photograph,  be  it  ever  so  successful,  with  a  clear  blue 
(in  photography,  a  white)  sky,  is  but  a  half-finished  picture. 
To  give  animation  to  the  blank  space,  especially  when  the 
horizon  is  low,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enliven  it  with  cloud-life. 

Secure  on  a  favorable  day  cloud-negatives  from  some  elevated 
point,  tilting  the  camera  upwards  in  order  to  get  the  greatest 
amount  of  sky  on  your  plate.  Avoid  over-developing,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  quick-printing  negatives.  Mark  them  ac- 
cording to  the  exposure,  scratching  in  some  corner  S.  M.,  south 
morning ;  E.  E.,  east  evening,  etc.  Do  not  hesitate  to  point 
your  lens  direct  against  the  sun,  especially  on  fine  sunset  even- 
ings ;  the  transparent  spot  of  the  sun  disc  is  easily  blocked  out 
by  a  circular  cut-out  opaque  paper,  somewhat  larger  than  the 
sun  disc,  gummed  on  the  glass  side  of  the  negative. 

Having  thus  obtained  a  number  of  cloud-negatives  suitable 
in  lighting  for  any  of  your  landscapes,  the  difficult  part 
remains  of  printing  them  into  your  picture  without  showing  a 
dividing  line.  Proceed  as  follows  :  Make  a  mask  of  your 
landscape  on  some  opaque  paper  (post-office  paper  will  do), 
tracing  the  outlines  of  the  horizon  in  a  rough  way,  not 
minding  single  tree  tops  rising  above  it.  Place  your  print 
over  the  selected  cloud-negative  in  a  printing-frame,  and  your 
mask  outside  of  the  frame  in  position.  Expose  to  the  sun, 


ARTISTIC    PRINTING.  75 

constantly  moving  your  mask  up  and  down,  also  sideways ; 
never  hold  your  mask  too  high  above  the  horizon  point,  out 
rather  move  it  an  eighth  of  an  inch  or  so  below.  As  it  is  easy 
to  observe,  from  time  to  time,  the  effect  of  your  printing,  you 
can  manage  the  mask,  raising  it  higher,  lower,  or  corner  wise, 
according  to  requirement.  The  result  will  be,  after  a  little 
practice,  a  perfect  blending  of  the  two  negatives. 

It  will  be  advisable  to  secure  cloud-negatives  on  larger  plates 
than  those  used  for  the  landscape.  By  placing  the  print  in 
different  positions,  a  variety  of  cloud  effects  can  be  obtained 
from  the  same  cloud-negative. 

In  conclusion,  let  us  warn  the  young  photographers  never  to 
print  the  full  size  of  their  negatives  when  they  use  lenses  of 
very  short  focus,  as  f.  i.,  the  wide-angle  lenses,  for  the  reason 
that  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  center  is  in  true  perspective 
and  the  borders  outrageously  exaggerated.  Even  with  nega- 
tives made  with  long-focus  lenses  it  will  be  advisable  to  make 
some  sacrifice  for  the  benefit  of  a  more  artistic  result.  The 
printing  of  landscapes  in  medallion  and  vignetted  form  give 
most  charming  effects,  and  many  a  faulty  negative  may  yield 
excellent  results  by  this  mode  of  treatment. 


LESSON  XL 
TRIMMING  AND  MOUNTING  THE  PRINTS. 

TRIMMING. 

The  albumen  prints,  having  been  thoroughly  washed,  and  the 
last  traces  of  hypo  having  been  eliminated  from  them,  they  may 
be  dried  and  trimmed  or  cut  to  appropriate  sizes  and  shapes  pre- 
paratory to  mounting.  For  economical  reasons,  many  photo- 
graphers trim  their  pictures  before  toning  and  fixing,  and 
collect  the  paper  clippings  containing  small  amounts  of  silver, 
to  recover  by  chemical  processes  the  precious  metal. 

Prints  should  be  dried  spontaneously,  and  not  by  heat.  They 
are  hung  up  two  by  two  and  back  to  back  with  clips  and  strung 
on  a  line. 


LOCKWOOD'S  CLIP. 

The  trimming  of  the  photograph  should  always  be  neatly 
and  carefully  done.  The  edges  should  be  untorn  and  the  form 
or  shape  should  be  true.  A  knife  is  often  used  with  a  glass  or 
metal  form,  but  the  invention  of  Mr.  S.  M.  Robinson,  known 
as  the  Robinson  Trimmer,  has  almost  displaced  the  knife. 
These  trimmers  are  made  in  two  forms,  the  one  illustrated  by 
Fig.  1  being  constructed  so  as  to  revolve  in  a  socket  in  order 


TRIMMING    AND    MOUNTING    PRINTS. 


77 


to  follow  accurately  an  oval  or  round-cornered  metal  "  guide," 
and  the  other,  in  Fig.  2,  known  as  the  "  straight-cut,"  is  for 
trimming  straight  edges,  a  metal  guide  being  used  with  it  also, 
or  a  glass  form. 

The  theory  of  these  trimmers  is  that  instead  of  cutting  they 
pinch  off  the  surplus  paper,  thereby  giving  a  nicely  bevelled 
edge  to  the  print,  and  they  are  far  superior  to  the  knife  or 
scissors,  if  held  or  used  as  indicated  in  the  drawings. 

To  trim  the  print  well  it  must  be  laid  upon  a  hard  surface. 
Many  use  a  glass,  others  again  trim  upon  a  sheet  of  zinc. 
With  the  former,  the  cutting  tool  is  very  soon  dulled,  and  with 
the  latter,  the  metal  is  cut  up  and  roughened  so  much  that  a 
clean  cut  soon  becomes  an  impossibility.  A  better  mode  is  to 
paste  a  sheet  of  well-sized  paper  on  the  glass,  which,  when 
dry,  gives  sufficient  resistance  to  the  trimmer  without  injuring 
its  sharp  edge,  and  the  surface,  not  being  so  slippery  as  glass, 
allows  the  print  to  rest  well  upon  it  during  the  manipulation. 


FIG.  l.  FIG.  2. 

ROBINSON'S  TRIMMERS. 

Before  mounting,  the  prints  are  wetted  again  in  clean  water,, 
and  when  perfectly  pliable  laid  upon  blotting  paper  in  several 
thicknesses  face  down,  and  piled  upon  each  other  in  such  quan- 
tities as  to  allow  of  convenient  pasting. 

MOUNTING. 

A  very  durable  and  adhesive  mountant  is  the  S.  P.  C.  parlor 
paste. 


78  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Another  good  paste,  easily  made  by  anybody,  is  the  following : 

Good  laundry  starch • If  ounces. 

Sheet  gelatine  or  white  glue 80  grains. 

Put  the  starch  into  a  small  pan,  add  one  ounce  of  water,  and 
mix  thoroughly  with  a  spoon  or  the  ordinary  mounting  brush, 
until  it  is  like  a  thick  cream,  then  add  fourteen  ounces  of 
water  and  the  gelatine,  broken  into  small  fragments.  Boil  for 
four  or  five  minutes,  set  aside  until  nearly  cold,  then  add  one 
ounce  of  alcohol  and  six  drops  of  pure  carbolic  acid.  We  have 
now  fifteen  ounces  of  a  very  good  and  durable  paste  that  will 
keep  well,  in  stoppered  bottles,  is  smooth  as  cream,  and  with- 
out lumps  or  grit. 

Previous  to  applying  the  paste  all  superfluous  water  is 
squeezed  from  the  pile  of  prints  with  a  slight  pressure  between 
blotting  paper,  after  which  the  mounting  can  be  commenced.  A 
flat  bristle  brush  is  dipped  into  the  paste,  and  then  drawn  with 
slight  force  over  the  print  laying  on  top  of  the  pile.  It  is  drawn 
several  times,  and  in  opposite  directions,  over  the  back  of  the 
print  without  leaving  more  paste  than  is  necessary  for  adhe- 
sion. The  print  is  then  lifted  up  with  the  point  of  a  knife, 
and  placed  in  proper  position  upon  the  mount.  With  a  stout 
piece  of  paper  and  an  ivory  paper  cutter,  or  similar  tool,  the 
the  print  must  be  laid  flat,  all  air  bubbles  expelled  from  under 
it,  and  when  adhering  uniformly  to  all  parts  of  the  mount, 
laid  aside  for  drying,  with  the  face  side  down.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  apply  no  more  paste  than  is  needed  to  fasten  the 
print  to  the  mount.  Highly  glazed  mounts,  at  present  so  much 
in  vogue,  are,  on  account  of  their  greasy  enamel,  quite  difficult 
to  mount  upon.  To  make  photographs  adhere  to  them  uni- 
formly, it  is  best  to  add.  and  mix  well  with  the  fifteen  ounces 
of  paste,  one-half  ounce  of  ammonia.  A  part  of  the  ammonia 
saponifies  the  greasy  matter,  the  rest  evaporates.  The  method 
is  very  easy  to  work,  and  is  not  injurious  to  the  picture. 

Blue  prints  and  photographs  on  plain  paper  are  similarly 
mounted,  but  do  not  require  to  be  wetted;  it  is  probably 
better  to  paste  them  when  in  a  dry  state. 

Permanent  bromide  prints  may  be  mounted  wet  or  dry  ;  the 


TRIMMING    AND    MOUNTING    THE    PRINTS.  79 

prints  should  not  be  dried  between  blotters  like  albumenized 
paper,  but  should  be  hung  over  a  line,  or  laid  back  down  upon 
glass  or  clean  paper.  To  mount,  brush  over  the  back  some 
thin  starch  paste,  lay  the  print  on  the  mount  and  rub  into  con- 
tact with  a  soft  cloth. 

For  very  large  pictures,  cover  an  artist's  stretcher  frame  with 
a  piece  of  common  white  muslin,  by  stretching  it  tightly,  while 
dry,  and  tacking  it  on  the  outside  edges.  Give  the  cloth  a  coat 
of  starch  paste,  rubbing  it  well  in  and  avoiding  streaks  and 
lumps,  lay  over  a  smooth  table  a  piece  of  rubber  sheeting,  lay 
the  wet  print  on  the  rubber  cloth,  face  down,  and  with  a  rub- 
ber squeegee  scrape  off  the  water.  Give  the  back  of  the  print? 
as  it  lies  on  the  rubber  cloth,  a  coat  of  paste,  and  then  lay  the 
stretcher,  face  down,  upon  it,  and  rub  the  muslin  into  contact 
with  the  back  of  the  print,  using  a  thin  paper-knife  to  reach 
under  the  edges  of  the  frame.  Lift  the  frame  and  rubber  cloth 
from  the  table  together,  and  peel  the  rubber  off  from  the  face 
of  the  print.  This  will  leave  the  print  on  the  stretcher  smooth 
and  flat.  When  dry  it  will  be  tight  as  a  drum  head. 

Albumenized  and  other  paper  photographs  may  be  mounted 
on  muslin  similarly.  Should  it  be  required  to  mount  them 
back  to  back  with  a  muslin  support  between  them,  trimming 
had  better  be  deferred  until  after  mounting  and  drying.  The 
muslin  should,  however,  be  well  stretched. 

To  prevent  mounted  pictures  of  large  dimensions  from  curl- 
ing up,  the  mounts  should  be  dampened  before  the  pictures 
are  laid  upon  them.  They  are  then  dried  between  blotting- 
paper  and  under  a  slight  pressure,  the  blotting-paper  being 
changed  occasionally. 

To  mount  in  an  album  without  cockling,  let  the  photograph 
be  ironed  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  back  till  it  is  perfectly  smooth, 
then  place  it  under  pressure  till  quite  flat.  A  large  book  ans- 
wers the  purpose  admirably.  To  prepare  for  mounting,  lay  the 
flattened  print  face  downwards  on  a  smooth  board  or  piece  of 
glass,  and  upon  it  place  a  piece  of  clean,  stiff  paper,  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  less  all  round  than  the  photograph,  upon  the  ex- 
posed edge  of  which  rapidly  and  sparely  brush  some  liquid 
glue  (as  little  as  possible)  to  cover  it.  Herein  lies  the  secret. 


80 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


Avoid  making  the  paper  wet.  The  album  being  conveniently 
placed — the  position  the  photograph  is  to  occupy  being  pre- 
viously marked  with  a  pencil — carefully  raise  the  photograph 
with  a  point  of  some  kind,  to  avoid  soiling  the  fingers  with  the 


THE  ALBUM. 

glued  edge  making  it  non-adhesive  in  the  parts  where  such 
glue  would  be  removed,  and  lay  it  down  in  the  proper  place. 
At  once  lay  a  piece  of  clean  paper  over  %  it,  and  rub  it  down 
firmly  with  a  soft  rag,  and  close  the  album.  In  half  an  hour 
the  face  will  be  dry  and  the  print  perfectly  flat,  and  it  will  re- 
main so. 


LESSON  XII. 
SPOTTING  AND  BURNISHING  THE  PRINTS. 

SPOTTING. 

Careless  or  excessive  negative  retouching,  faults  or  impur- 
ities in  the  glass  supporting  the  gelatine  film,  foreign  matter 
which  has  accidentally  found  ingress  between  negative  and  paper 
during  printing,  dirt  upon  the  surface  of  the  negative  plate, 
and  a  variety  of  other  causes,  produce  white  spots  of  unexposed 
paper  on  albumen  prints.  These  faults  or  spots  must  be  taken 
out  or  touched  away  by  an  operation  termed  "  spotting,"  by 
photographers. 

Simple  as  the  operation  may  appear  at  the  first  glance,  it 
requires,  nevertheless,  a  steady  hand,  an  eye  well  educated  to 
judge  correctly  of  color,  and  some  mechanical  skill.  Only  the 
white  spot  should  be  covered  with  the  retouching  medium,  and 
its  color  must  harmonize  strictly  with  the  general  tone  of  the  pho- 
tograph. If  the  spot  is  large,  interrupting  different  shades,  the 
touching  must  be  done  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  break  up  the 
harmony,  or  to  present  tones  in  variance  with  its  surroundings. 
With  "  blue  "  prints  or  those  on  plain  paper  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  do  this.  Albumen  paper,  on  account  of  its  gloss  and 
hardness,  repels  aqueous  colors  and  India  ink,  and  the  paint  or 
color  must  be  prepared  to  work  easily  on  the  paper. 

Take 

Gum  arable 10  parts. 

Glycerine 1      " 

Alcohol 5      " 

Water 34      " 

Dissolve  the  gum  in  a  mortar  by  rubbing  it  well  with  the 
solvent,  add  the  other  ingredients,  mix  well,  and  keep  in  a 
well-stoppered  bottle. 

Take,  further,  a  half-part  of  dried  and  pulverized  ox-gall  and 
mix  well  with  ten  parts  of  the  above  solution. 


82  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

A  mixture  of  neutral  tint,  carmine  and  Prussian  blue,  can  be 
made  to  match  any  photographic  tone.  Such  a  mixture  com- 
bined with  the  ox-gall  preparation  is  eminently  useful  for  re- 
touching or  spotting  out  albumenized  paper  prints.  A  fine 
camel's-hair  brush  slightly  moistened  with  the  color  solution 
will  do  the  work.  For  larger  spots  washing  may  be  employed, 
but  it  is  better  to  do  the  work  by  stippling. 

Bromide  prints  are  best  spotted  with  a  very  soft  lead  pencil, 
Faber's  BBB. 

BURNISHING. 

The  very  high  polish  on  photographs,  now  so  popular,  is 
attained  by  propelling  the  picture  over  a  heated  burnishing 
tool  contained  in  a  little  machine  constructed  especially  for  the 
purpose. 

The  burnishing  tool  should  be  uniformly  heated,  and  this  is 
done  either  by  two  or  three  alcohol  flames,  or  by  gas  pass- 
ing through  a  perforated  tube,  which  is  attached  to  the  ordinary 
gas-burner  by  means  of  a  rubber  tube.  Petroleum  or  oil  lamps 
must  never  be  used,  as  by  any  imperfect  combination  of  the 
•fuel,  carbon  is  separated  in  the  shape  of  smoke  or  soot,  which 
will  soil  the  picture  and  the  hands  of  the  manipulator. 


BURNISHER. 
Preparatory  .to  burnishing,  the  mounted,  dried  and  spotted 


SPOTTING    AND    BURNISHING    THE    FEINTS.  83 

print  is  lubricated,  to  promote  its  free  and  uninterrupted 
passage  over  the  tool.  This  is  done  by  rubbing  over  its  face 
an  alcoholic  solution  of  Venetian  or  Castile  soap,  or  finely- 
scraped  solid  soap. 

A  print  to  be  burnished  should  not  be  dried  too  much,  as  the 
swell  of  the  card  bends  the  picture  backwards.  Let  the  picture 
dry  until  the  contraction  of  the  paper  just  commences  to  bend 
the  picture  forwards.  It  will  be  found  that  the  picture  in  this 
stage  is  about  three-fourths  dry,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  any  further  until  after  it 
has  gone  through  the  burnisher. 

This  is  best  done  by  arranging  the  pictures  in  one  or  two 
piles,  and  placing  them  under  a  weight.  They  should  be  care- 
fully taken  from  the  pile  and  spotted  out,  and  immediately 
placed  in  another  pile  under  a  weight.  The  same  precaution 
should  be  taken  in  applying  the  lubricator  to  the  print.  The 
reason  for  this  method  of  procedure  will  be  evident  to  anyone 
who  has  observed  with  what  a  number  of  irregular  lines  the 
surface  of  a  picture  becomes  broken  when  allowed  to  become 
perfectly  dry  in  the  usual  manner.  When  these  man-ings 
have  once  appeared  in  a  picture,  there  is  no  method  for  again 
uniting  the  broken  surface.  When  burnished  by  the  above 
directions,  the  picture  will  be  found  to  be  very  compact  and 
hard  when  cool,  and  neither  alcohol  nor  water  will  destroy 
the  gloss  thus  obtained.  It  is  advisable  to  put,  first,  the 
picture  through  the  burnisher  lengthways,  curling  it  up  back- 
wards around  the  roller ;  afterwards  put  it  through  sideways, 
thus  straightening  it,  and  thereby  also  raising  a  much  higher 
polish. 

If,  occasionally,  a  cabinet  or  card  picture  will  not  take  the 
gloss,  breathe  upon  it  freely  before  running  it  through  the 
burnisher.  Should  the  enamel  not  be  produced  the  first  time, 
repeat  the  operation  after  the  picture  has  become  cool;  the 
desired  result  will  then  be  obtained. 

It  is  imperative  to  keep  the  burnishing  tool  in  a  good  condi- 
tion. Rust  or  scratches  are  its  greatest  enemy,  and  if  they 
should  occur,  a  re-polish  can  be  given  to  the  burnisher  by 
rubbing  it  well  with  an  oiled  leather  file  and  the  finest  emery 
flour. 


84  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Unmounted  photographs  are  often  required  to  be  burnished. 
The  trimmed  and  spotted  picture  is  lubricated  as  usual,  laid 
smoothly  upon  an  ordinary  card-board,  larger  than  the  print, 
in  the  same  position  as  if  it  had  been  mounted  thereon, 
and  passed  over  the  tool.  The  manipulation  does  not  differ 
from  that  of  mounted  prints,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
allow  the  print  to  slip  from  its  position. 

When  mounted  on  muslin,  the  burnishing  of  prints  is  quite 
easy,  but  it  is  advisable  to  place  a  card-board  between  the 
rough  roller  and  the  print,  so  as  to  prevent  an  impression  of 
the  corrugated  surface  of  the  muslin.  When  burnishing  prints 
that  are  mounted  back  to  back,  either  with  or  without  paper 
or  muslin  support  between  them,  the  card-mount  protector 
must  again  be  employed  ;  burnishing  the  one  side  of  the  double 
print  first,  then  the  other  in  the  usual  manner.  Often  pictures 
are  seen  which  present  a  much  higher  and  more  beautiful  gloss 
than  can  be  obtained  with  the  burnisher.  These  are  called 
"  enamels  "  or  "  glaces."  The  method  of  enamelling  is  a  little 
more  complicated,  but  nevertheless  is  quite  easy.  It  is  done 
in  the  following  manner  : 

ENAMELLING. 

Sprinkle  the  surface  of  a  glass  plate  with  powdered  French 
chalk,  rub  it  evenly  over  the  surface  with  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool, 
continuing  to  lightly  rub  it  until  the  chalk  is  all  removed,  then 
coat  the  glass  with  the  following 

COLLODION. 

Soluble  gun  cotton 48  grains 

Alcohol 4  ounces 

Sulphuric  ether 4  ounces 

As  soon  as  the  collodion  is  well  set  lay  upon  it  the  print, 
previously  soaked  in  a  warm  solution  of  one-half  ounce  gelatine 
in  ten  ounces  of  water,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  glycerine  have 
been  added.  Expel  all  air  bubbles  from  beneath  the  print  and 
squeegee  it  into  absolute  contact  with  the  collodionized  glass. 

After  drying,  the  print  can  be  peeled  off  from  the  glass  and 
the  face  will  present  a  polish  almost  as  high  as  the  surface  of 
the  glass  from  which  it  has  been  removed.  The  print  is  then 


SPOTTING    AND    BURNISHING    THE    PBINTS.  85 

ready  to  mount,  as  follows :  Moisten  the  face  of  the  mount 
with  a  damp  sponge  and  lay  upon  it  the  pasted  print ;  rub 
down  with  a  soft  cloth  and  put  under  pressure  to  dry. 

The  addition  of  five  per  cent,  of  glycerine  to  the  paste  will 
prevent  the  print  peeling  off  the  glass  as  it  dries. 

For  enamelling  bromide  prints  the  same  collodion  substratum 
as  mentioned  above  may  be  employed. 

As  soon  as  the  collodion  is  well  set,  slide  the  plate  face  up 
into  a  tray  of  water,  in  which  is  floating,  face  down,  the  per- 
manent bromide  print,  which  has  just  been  fixed  and  washed  • 
grasp  the  plate  and  print  by  one  end  and  lift  together  from  the 
water,  avoiding  bubbles  and  draining  the  water  from  the  oppo- 
site end  ;  squeegee  the  print  into  contact  with  the  plate  and 
set  away  to  dry.  Before  the  print  is  quite  dry  apply  a  coat  of 
starch  paste  to  the  back. 

Another  method  is  to  squeegee  the  wet  print,  face  down,  on 
a  polished  piece  of  hard  rubber  or  ebonite  ;  when  dry  the  print 
will  peel  off  with  a  fine  polished  surface.  The  print  should  be 
slipped  on  to  the  rubber  plate  under  water  to  avoid  air  bubbles. 

Cyanotypes  and  plain  paper  photographs  do  not  assume 
gloss  so  readily  under  the  burnisher  as  do  albumen  prints,  but 
they,  too,  may  be  enamelled  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Great  richness  of  tone  and  depth,  transparency  and  detail  in 
lights  and  shadows  can  be  given  to  them  with  encaustic  paste, 
which  secures  also  their  permanency,  this  paste  being  a  pre- 
ventative  against  the  action  of  moisture  and  injurious  gases. 

The  formula  for  the  paste  is  as  follows  : 

Pure  virgin  wax 500  grains. 

Gum  elemi 10       ".j 

Benzole 200       " 

Essence  of  lavender 300 

Oil  of  spike 15 

Melt  the  whole  thoroughly  on  a  water  bath,  and  strain 
through  muslin.  A  simpler  plan  is  to  dissolve  the  elemi  in 
the  solvents  as  described,  and,  after  filtering,  mix  with  the 
melted  wax,  as  the  filtration,  which  is  chiefly  intended  for  the 
gum  elemi,  is  more  easily  managed  before  the  wax  is  present. 
This,  when  finished,  forms  a  stiff  paste.  By  increasing  the 


86  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

proportion  of  essence  of  lavender,  it  can  be  made  thinner, 
which  in  winter  may  be  desirable.  The  encaustic  paste  is  put 
on  the  print  in  patches  in  three  or  four  parts,  and  then  rubbed 
with  a  light,  quick  motion,  with  a  piece  of  clean  flannel,  until 
a  firm,  fine  surface  is  obtained.  If  a  rich,  thick  coating  of  the 
encaustic  be  desired,  a  very  light  pressure  in  rubbing  is  neces- 
sary, so  that  a  polish  may  be  acquired  without  rubbing  off  the 
paste  in  the  operation.  If  a  print  is  retouched,  more  care 
must  be  taken  to  use  the  hand  lightly  in  applying  the  paste. 

Finishing  a  photograph  properly  is  of  as  much  importance 
as  the  developing  or  printing  of  it.  A  badly  mounted,  spotted 
or  burnished  picture  may  spoil  all  the  good  work  previously 
done,  arid  the  tyro  must,  therefore,  never  neglect  to  give  the 
final  manipulation  his  undivided  and  careful  attention. 


LESSON  XIII. 
PORTRAITURE. 

THIS  important  and  most  difficult  branch  of  photography 
can  hardly  receive  sufficient  attention  within  the  short  space 
of  a  Chautauqua  lesson.  A  mere  outline  only  can  be  given  to 
the  student  in  describing  the  construction  of  the  studio,  or  the 
uses  of  back-grounds  and  accessories,  the  lighting  and  posing 
of  subject,  or  the  arrangement  of  groups  ;  although  this  should 
be  considered  in  more  detailed  form.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
concisely  all  that  upon  which  innumerable  artists  have  written 
volumes  with  more  or  less  success. 

Before  any  degree  of  proficiency  can  be  attained,  art-pho- 
tography requires  much  practical  exercise,  close  observation, 
and  diligent  reading.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  supple- 
ment the  studying  of  this  chapter  by  the  reading  of  a  good 
book  on  the  subject.* 

The  studio  or  skylight  room  must  be  of  first  consideration. 
It  is  well  to  have  plenty  of  space  to  move  about  in  and  to  con- 
tain the  necessary  furniture,  apparatus,  and  accessories.  The 
length  may  be  partly  determined  by  the  size  of  the  pictures 
intended  to  be  made,  and  it  will  be  found  that  if  the  room  is 
to  be  long  enough  to  allow  a  cabinet  portrait  to  be  taken  of  a 
full  length  standing  figure  with  sufficient  space  for  back- 
ground, camera,  and  contingencies,  twenty-eight  feet  will  be 
quite  sufficient.  In  width,  if  we  allow  enough  space  for  fur- 
niture, head-rests,  additional  cameras  and  utensils,  fourteen 
feet  will  give  room  enough  in  which  to  work  comfortably. 

*"The  Studio,  and  What  to  Do  In  It."  By  H.  P.  Robinson  (Scovill 
Manufacturing  Company,  Publishers).  Price,  75  cents. 


88  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Various  opinions  exist  among  the  experts  as  to  the  best 
shape  and  position  of  the  skylight.  There  are  certain  rules 
and  facts,  however,  which  should  not  be  disregarded.  Con- 
trast between  light  and  shade  is  a  point  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance, and  the  results  deriving  from  their  management  are  ob- 
vious. If  all  the  light  comes  from  one  point,  the  contrast 
will  be  too  violent,  whereas  two  lights,  equally  strong  from 
opposite  directions,  will  place  the  subject  to  disadvantage, 
destroy  contrasts,  produce  flat  pictures,  without  roundness 
or  solidity  of  effect.  The  light  thrown  on  the  subject  should  be 
diffused  and  soft.  The  direct  light  of  the  sun  must  be 
avoided.  It  is  well  to  remember  that,  if  the  skylight  faces 
east,  the  rising  sun  will  stream  in ;  a  southern  light  admits 
the  sun  immediately  before  and  after  noon,  while  a  western 
light  is  equally  objectionable  on  account  of  the  afternoon  sun. 
It  is  only  from  the  north,  then,  that  the  direct  sunlight  can  be 
avoided;  hence  every  skylight  should  face  the  north. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  skylight  suitable  for  one 
style  of  work  is  not  always  the  best  for  another  class.  Thus  a 
low  light  is  generally  better  for  standing  or  entire  figures,  and 
gives  brilliancy  to  all  parts  of  the  picture,  while  a  higher  light 
is  better  suited  for  head  and  bust  pictures,  it  being  softer  and 
more  subdued.  Therefore,  it  is  an  essential  point  to  so  con- 
struct a  skylight  as  to  adapt  it  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  pro- 
ducing of  general  work.  When  it  is  impracticable  to  have  a 
side  light,  the  top  light  should  have  considerable  slope,  and 
thus  give  different  heights,  but  when  it  is  practicable,  top 
light  should  be  combined  with  a  side  light.  The  side  light 
should  rise  in  an  elevation  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  inches 
above  the  floor,  be  not  less  than  six  feet  and  not  more  than 
eight  feet  high,  and  not  less  than  ten  feet  and  not  more  than 
twelve  feet  long.  The  top  light,  rising  from  the  side  light  at 
an  angle  of  35  deg.,  should  be  of  the  same  length  as  the  side 
light,  or  one-fourth  more. 

At  certain  periods  of  the  year,  when  the  sun  reaches  a 
high  elevation,  its  rays  will  be  apt  to  intrude  themselves 
through  the  top  light,  to  avoid  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  two 
poles  may  be  erected,  furnished  with  cross  bars,  along  which 
a  canvass  curtain  may  be  drawn. 


PORTRAITURE.  89 

The  sashes  should  be  fitted  with  white  glass,  and  the  panes 
be  as  large  as  practicable  to  avoid  too  often  repeated  lappings. 

To  regulate  light  effects  at  the  will  of  the  operator,  to  con- 
centrate it  at  some  points,  to  exclude  it  or  subdue  it  in  others, 
we  resort  to  movable  screens  or  shutters.  A  plan  to  be  recom- 
mended is  to  provide  two  or  three  shades  on  spring  rollers, 
whose  combined  widths  are  the  width  of  the  top  light,  the 
spring  rollers  being  attached  to  the  highest  point  of  the  top 
light.  These  may  be  made  of  some  stiff  material,  and  of  a 
light  neutral  color  ;  and  if  a  double  set  of  curtains  is  preferred, 
the  other  can  be  of  thin  white  muslin.  The  side  light  may  be 
curtained  similarly,  but  should  be  movable  from  side  to  side. 

The  color  of  the  interior  of  the  studio  had  also  best  be  of  a 
light  neutral  tone.  The  floor  should  be  level  and  steady  ;  it 
may  be  painted  of  a  light-brown  or  other  suitable  color. 

Carpets  and  oilcloth  are  objectionable  for  several  reasons. 

Back-grounds  are  essential  parts  of  the  studio,  and  should  be 
properly  selected.  If  plain  and  uniform  in  tone,  the  effects 
produced  by  them  are  plain  and  uniform.  A  carefully  grad- 
uated back-ground  relieves  certain  parts  of  the  picture,  and 
contrasts  well  with  others  ;  thus  the  lights  in  the  figure  should 
be  relieved  by  the  darker  shades  in  the  back-ground,  and  vice 
versa.  Fancy  painted  back-grounds  are  always  dangerous 
experiments,  except  in  the  hands  of  an  expert.  Absolutely 
avoid  heavy  columns,  pedestals  or  balustrades;  they  rarely 
contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the  picture.  The  introduction  of 
a  gracefully  falling  curtain,  with  good  taste  and  in  keeping 
with  the  subject,  may  occasionally  be  permitted  to  relieve 
what  otherwise  might  appear  too  monotonous,  or  to  form  a 
balance  line,  which  may  be  requisite. 

In  the  introduction  of  accessories,  such  as  rocks,  stumps, 
gate-ways,  shrubbery,  etc.,  these  should  be  faintly  but  dis- 
tinctly reproduced  to  give  life  and  harmony  to  the  back-ground, 
representing  a  landscape  or  garden  scene,  with  graduated  sky 
of  delicate  and  broken  clouds. 

For  interiors,  the  back-ground  might  be  in  panels  of  grad- 
uated tints ;  if  painted  to  represent  the  light  streaming  in  from 
a  casement,  be  very  careful  that  the  light  falls  on  the  sitter 
from  the*same  direction. 


90  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

The  nearer  the  subject  is  to  the  light  the  stronger  will  be 
the  shadows.  A  reflecting  side-screen  will  subdue  excessively 
strong  shadows  on  the  face.  It  should  be  covered  with  light 
gray  material,  and  be  placed  obliquely  towards  the  sitter,  and 
at  a  distance  to  soften  the  shadows,  but  not  near  enough  to 
destroy  them  entirely. 

How  to  light  the  sitter  can  be  treated  in  general  terms 
only.  Lighting  the  subject  in  special  cases  is  a  question 
which  can  be  solved  by  the  operator  alone  when  the  subject  is 
before  him.  He  must  see  that  the  light  and  shade  fall  so  as  to 
produce  the  most  agreeable  effect  before  the  sensitive  plate  is 
exposed,  and  wrfh  the  capacity  of  seeing  this,  the  power  of 
modifying  is  usually  accompanied. 

As  a  general  principle  a  high  side  light,  a  little  in  advance 
of  the  sitter,  is  the  best  direct  light ;  excess  of  vertical  light  is 
in  most  cases  to  be  avoided  ;  nevertheless,  it  may  be  useful  at 
times  in  giving  form  and  brilliancy  to  flat  common-place  faces. 
But  where  the  sitter  has  heavy  brows,  sunken  eyes,  or  promi- 
nent features,  the  least  possible  vertical  light  should  be  em- 
ployed, or  these  features  will  look  more  marked  and  heavy. 
With  such  faces  the  side  light,  well  in  advance  of  the  sitter, 
will  give  the  most  soft  and  harmonious  effect  without  risk  of 
flatness.  The  top  front  light  will  generally  serve  to  illumine 
sufficiently  the  shadow  side  of  the  face  without  having  to  resort 
to  the  reflecting  side-screen,  which,  however,  under  some  cir- 
cumstances, will  not  only  be  useful  but  necessary.  As  a  rule, 
a  mild  and  soft  light  is  what  is  required.  Strong  illumination 
produces  lights  and  shadows  of  much  intensity,  giving  black 
and  white  pictures. 

There  are  other  influences  beside  the  amount  of  space  through 
which  the  light  is  admitted.  The  aspect  of  the  day,  the  period 
of  the  year,  the  quality  of  light,  the  situation  of  the  studio,  and 
the  quality  of  the  plate ;  for  a  very  sensitive  plate  seems  to 
require  a  greater  contrast  of  light  and  shade  than  a  slow  one. 

The  true  test  of  good  lighting  is  roundness.  This  can  only 
be  obtained  by  securing  delicacy  in  the  half  tones ;  there  should 
be  no  broad  patches  of  light  and  shade,  but  gradation  every- 
where. The  operator  must  educate  himself  to  see  these  half 


PORTRAITURE.  91 

tones,  and  he  must  see  them  in  his  model  without  looking  at 
the  ground-glass.  Get  the  right  effect  in  nature  and  the  rest 
will  follow. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  imperfections  of  the  human  face 
may  be  appropriate. 

Every  face  has,  artistically  speaking,  two  distinctly  different 
sides,  and  it  is  for  the  operator  to  select  for  his  portrait  the  best 
view.  With  gentlemen,  as  a  general  thing,  the  hair  is  parted 
on  one  side,  and  that  side  is  usually  preferred,  if  there  be  no 
reason  for  choosing  the  reverse.  Often  the  head  is  rather  bald 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  parting ;  in  such  cases,  perhaps, 
the  opposite  side  might  be  preferable.  Light  yellow  or  red 
hair  should  be  powdered,  unless  a  color-sensitive  plate  is  to  be 
exposed. 

In  cases  of  a  too  high  forehead,  the  latter  may  be  foreshort- 
ened by  raising  the  camera.  Blue  and  light  eyes  should,  as  a 
general  rule,  be  turned  from  the  light.  Deeply  sunken  eyes 
require  considerable  front  and  very  little  top  light.  Where 
the  eye  is  defective,  you  will,  of  course,  turn  that  side  away 
from  the  camera  as  much  as  is  necessary,  to  lose  sight  of  the 
defect ;  or  even  a  profile  may  be  taken.  Where  one  eye  is 
smaller  than  the  other,  it  is  generally  preferable  to  take  the 
larger  one  more  prominently.  Where  one  eye  is  higher  than  the 
other,  if  no  other  objection  offer,  take  the  higher  eye.  In  the 
case  of  small  and  partially  closed  eyes,  make  them  look  up- 
wards, or  if  desired  that  the  portrait  look  at  you,  depress  the 
chin  a  little.  For  very  large  and  staring  eyes  make  them 
look  lower. 

In  a  full  face  the  eyes  may  look  straight  forward,  being 
careful  to  turn  the  body  to  one  side,  more  or  less  ;  never  have 
chest  and  head  presented  exactly  in  front  of  the  camera. 

The  direction  of  the  eyes  is  important.  Never  allow  the 
head  to  turn  in  one  direction  and  the  eyes  in  the  opposite; 
nothing  can  be  worse  than  this.  In  the  case  of  short-sighted 
persons  wearing  spectacles,  beware  of  false  reflections.  An 
improperly  placed  side-screen  will  reflect  so  much  light  that 
the  eyes  are  entirely  obliterated. 

In  but  very  rare  cases  do  we  find  a  perfectly  straight  nose. 


92  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

If  it  turn  to  the  left  or  right,  the  two  sides  of  the  face 
will  appear  materially  different ;  when  twisted  towards  the 
left,  a  view  taken  from  that  side  will  shorten  the  nose, 
apparently,  whereas  the  opposite  result  takes  place  from  the 
other  side.  If  the  nose  be  very  long  take  the  face  rather  full. 
In  the  case  of  a  turned-up  nose,  raise  the  camera  as  high  as 
possible;  with  a  round  and  rather  flat  or  fat  nose, take  it  pretty 
well  from  the  side. 

For  high  cheek  bones,  with  hollow  cheeks,  be  very  careful 
of  a  too  strong  top  light,  and  take  the  face  rather  full,  well 
lighting  up  the  cheeks.  In  frequent  cases  the  profile  is  the 
better  view.  Should  one  cheek  be  swollen,  perhaps  it  might 
be  better  to  avoid  that  side  ;  if  not  practicable  to  do  this  rest 
the  cheek  upon  the  hand. 

Old  and  wrinkled  faces  require  a  strong  front  light  without 
much  shadow,  and  are  generally  best  taken  in  full,  front  views. 

Small  and  narrow  mouths  may  be  taken  rather  full ;  pursue 
the  opposite  course  with  large  mouths  and  fat  lips. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  secure  pictures  of  large  open  mouths 
with  protruding  teeth.  Closing  the  lips  by  force  distorts  the 
chin  and  all  chance  of  obtaining  a  good  likeness  is  lost.  En- 
gage the  sitter  in  conversation  and  expose  the  plate  when 
mouth,  chin,  and  cheeks  are  in  the  most  favorable  position. 

Full  or  three-quarter  length  figures  are  more  difficult  to 
manage  than  head  and  bust.  A  pictorial  back-ground  may 
then  be  employed,  and  furniture  or  other  accessories  appro- 
priate to  back-ground  and  the  costume  of  the  sitter  are  admis- 
sible. 

For  a  lady  there  is  nothing  better  than  a  simple  attitude, 
without  attempt  to  pose  artificially ;  let  the  hands  join  in  front, 
or,  for  variety's  sake,  rest  one  upon  a  chair  or  other  suitable 
piece  of  furniture.  Throwing  one  hand  behind  the  back  gives 
in  some  positions  very  pretty  effects.  When  furniture  is  used 
to  assist  in  making  the  position,  a  piece  of  lace  or  nicely  folded 
drapery  is  of  great  value  to  conceal  some  parts  or  bring  others 
into  better  relief.  Sitting  figures  are  more  easily  posed  than 
standing  ones ;  more  action  can  be  brought  into  the  picture, 
and  employment  can  better  be  given  to  the  hands,  thus  obtain- 


PORTRAITURE.  93 

ing  life  and  expression  for  the  whole  composition.  A  fan  lends 
itself  admirably  to  the  purpose,  so  does  a  book,  sewing,  writ- 
ing, or  similar  employment,  answers  well. 

No  difficulty  occurs  more  frequently  in  portraiture  than 
the  posing  of  hands.  Arms  and  hands  should  be  rather  re- 
tired, both  in  position  and  tone ;  if  they  must  come  in  the  pic- 
ture, endeavor  to  turn  the  edge  of  the  hand  towards  the  cam- 
era, and  avoid  leaning  the  arms  too  heavily  against  anything 
which  will  distort  the  natural  form.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  fingers  curve  gracefully.  Hands  appear  frequently  too 
large,  and  to  prevent  this  they  must  be  placed  in  a  plane  with 
the  face.  In  some  positions  a  hand  looks  much  larger  than  in 
others.  Especially  is  this  apparent  when  its  broad  back  is  seen. 
When  the  fingers  are  interlaced  the  effect  is  similar.  A  well- 
formed  hand  is  a  beautiful  object,  and  while  in  the  composition 
of  a  portrait,  first  consideration  is  given  to  the  head  as  the  prin- 
cipal object,  the  second  place  the  artist  should  give  to  the 
hands. 

Group  pictures  are  likewise  not  easily  made,  and  none  present 
so  many  difficulties  as  the  family  group,  in  which,  frequently 
three  generations  are  represented,  thus  offering  material  of 
various  kinds,  from  which  to  compose  a  whole,  harmonious  in 
all  respects.  It  is  in  all  cases  necessary  that  each  individual 
of  a  group  should  be  an  equally  well-lighted  portrait  and  per. 
feet  likeness ;  and  while  one  of  the  first  art-principles  and  good 
taste  tell  us  that  one  or  more  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
picture  should  be  given  prominence,  and  others  be  subdued 
in  light-effect,  a  variety  of  difficulties  here  naturally  occur. 
Groups  should  always  be  arranged  in  pyramidal  form,  and  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  whole  appears  to  be  composed 
of  several  minor  pyramids.  The  same  refers  to  smaller  groups 
of  but  a  limited  number  of  persons.  For  two,  let  one  stand, 
the  other  sit ;  while,  in  a  group  of  three,  two  had  better  be 
sitting  and  one  standing.  By  no  means  should  the  persons 
composing  a  group  stare  at  the  camera ;  let  every  one  of  them 
select  a  point  to  look  at,  according  to  the  turn  of  the  head,  and 
on  a  level  with  the  eye. 

Out-door   groups   frequently  represent  a  mass  of  figures, 


94:  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

without  any  attempt  at  artistic  arrangement.  This  latter 
disposition  is  caused  by  the  impossibility  of  getting  assistance, 
from  the  nature  of  the  ground  or  place  where  the  photograph  is 
taken  ;  but  it  should  be  the  operator's  task  to  utilize  to  best  ad- 
vantage the  material  offered.  He  should  look  out  for,  and 
take  advantage  of,  any  spot  that  would  afford  him  aid  to  break 
up  monotony,  and  to  give  variety  to  the  general  form.  A 
picturesque  set  of  steps  often  gives  such  aid  in  a  high  degree, 
and  more  appropriate  appear  groups  when  a  motive  for  the 
gathering  of  so  many  persons  is  represented  in  the  picture ; 
prominence  should  be  given  to  the  most  important  persons, 
and  action  thrown  into  each  individual  and  the  whole. 

In  selecting  a  back-ground,  it  should  be  endeavored  to  secure 
one  with  a  broad  expanse  of  light,  if  not  too  blank.  Much 
detail  is  objectionable,  as  it  interferes  with  the  figures.  The 
worst  back-ground,  but  the  one  that  is  oftenest  used  for  out- 
door groups,  consists  of  foliage  of  large,  shining  leaves.  The 
effects  of  the  white  spots  caused  by  the  glittering  leaves,  espe- 
cially when  out  of  focus,  is  very  disagreeable. 

The  introduction  of  animals  is  in  most  cases  dangerous.  A 
cat  or  a  dog  have  often  totally  spoiled  an  otherwise  quite  per- 
fect group. 

The  photographing  of  children  was,  with  the  old,  slow  pro- 
cessess,  the  bete  noir  of  the  operator.  Thanks  to  the  rapid 
emulsion  plate,  the  young  members  of  society  are  comparatively 
quite  easily  managed  now.  Posing  and  lighting  them,  how- 
ever, requires,  under  all  circumstances,  much  patience  and 
perseverance,  a  tranquil  mind,  and  a  certain  self-possession, 
which,  unfortunately,  is  not  always  displayed  by  the  operator 
when  a  young  babe  is  presented  before  his  camera. 

To  make  portraits  with  limited  amateur  outfits,  and  in  our 
own  homes,  with  the  command  of  light  emanating  from  one 
window  only,  is  easily  accomplished.  Place  your  sitter  at  an 
oblique  Bangle  toward  one  window  of  the  room,  allowing  its 
full  force  of  light  to  illuminate  the  subject.  To  avoid  a  con- 
fusion of  light-effects,  screen  the  other  window  or  windows 
with  a  white-muslin  shade  or  tissue  paper,  by  which  means 
harmony  is  established  and  sufficient  illuminating  force  secured. 


PORTRAITURE. 


95 


If  the  shadows  cast  are  too  abrupt  or  too  opaque,  reflect  light 
from  the  opposite  side ;  a  clothes-horse,  covered  with  a  sheet 
or  table-cloth,  answers  quite  well  for  the  purpose. 

For  photographic  portraiture,  a  different  kind  of  lens  is  con- 
structed, possessing  more  luminous  power,  and,  consequently, 
working  more  rapid  than  the  single  landscape  lens.  Of  these, 
however,  we  shall  treat  in  the  lesson  on  lenses. 


LESSON  XIY. 
RETOUCHING   THE   NEGATIVE. 

NEGATIVES  of  portraits,  and  in  frequent  cases  of  landscapes, 
as  well,  require  certain  corrections  before  satisfactory  prints 
can  be  made  from  them.  In  faces  there  are  wrinkles  and 
heavily-shaded  folds  to  be  subdued,  warts  or  scars  to  be  re- 
moved, freckles  obliterated,  broad  shadows  lightened,  and  very 
often  whole  features  to  be  remodeled.  In  landscapes,  we  can 
assist  with  pencil  and  brush  to  establish  better  harmony ;  we 
lighten  up  shadows,  correct  broken  lines,  add  or  remove 
objects,  either  wanted  in  the  picture  or  objected  to,  introduce 
high  lights,  strengthen  up  distances,  and,  when  practical,  intro- 
duce a  clouded  sky. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  retoucher  to  improve  negatives  by 
judicious  and  careful  work,  to  give  them  artistic  effects  when 
wanted,  but  not  to  overdo  his  task  and  merely  smooth  the  plate 
down  mechanically,  as  the  joiner  planes  down  a  board.  Re- 
touching must  be  done  well,  and  if  the  effects  aimed  at  cannot 
be  reached,  it  is  far  better  to  print  from  an  un-retouched 
plate,  with  all  the  objectionable  features  in  it.  The  retoucher 
should  be  a  photographer  and  an  artist ;  that  is,  he  should  be 
able  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  negative  to  enable  him  to 
know  where  to  employ  the  pencil  and  where  not.  He  can 
make  a  work  of  art  from  an  average  good  negative,  but  he 
can  never  be  able  to  render  a  positively  bad  negative  service- 
able for  printing.  Retouching  is  an  aid  in  photography,  and 
should  never  be  considered  of  main  importance  when  making 
negatives;  nor  should  the  operator  rely  upon  the  pencil  to 
supply  wants  that  the  plate  and  camera  have  refused  to  give. 

Therefore,  it  cannot  be  laid  down  too  clearly  that  retouching, 
even  when  done  by  a  real  artist,  should  be  considered  only  as  a 


RETOUCHING    THE    NEGATIVE.  97 

necessary  continuation  of  very  careful  work  ;  not  that  the  part 
of  the  retoucher  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  operator,  but  that  the 
two  should  work  so  well  together  that  the  final  result  will  be 
arrived  at  through  the  cleverness  of  both. 

It  is  not  everybody  who  can  retouch  well.  It  is  a  work 
requiring  a  great  deal  of  taste,  lightness  of  hand,  close  applica- 
tion, and  great  patience,  all  of  which  qualities  few  'people 
possess.  But  every  photographer  is  capable  of  correcting  in 
his  negatives  some  faults  which  may  occur,  no  matter  how 
skilled  as  an  operator  he  may  be. 

-The  first  thing  required  is  an  easel  on  which  to  work.  This 
should  be  a  piece  of  fine  ground-glass  in  a  frame,  on  which  the 
negative  is  placed.  The  bottom  of  this  frame  has  hinges  as 
well  as  the  top,  which  retains  a  cover  of  wood  kept  open 
by  means  of  small  supports,  lying  on  the  sides  of  the 
frame  of  the  ground-glass.  The 
necessary  slant  is  given  to  this  by 
means  of  two  other  supports,  en- 
tering at  will  into  some  notches 
on  the  edges  of  the  surface  of  a 
flat  and  square  box,  of  which  the 
middle  is  covered  by  a  looking- 
glass  reflecting  the  light  under 
the  negative.  Several  carriers — 
same  size  as  the  ordinary  photo- 
graphic glasses,  and  fitting  one 

into  the  other,  completely  stop  the  light  around  the  negative. 
A  little  movable  rule  goes  up  and  down  in  front  of  the  ground- 
glass  and  serves  as  a  rest  for  the  hand  of  the  retoucher.  This 
easel  should  be  put  upon  a  table  before  a  window,  with  a  north 
light.  As  there  should  be  no  light  except  that  which  illumi- 
nates the  negative,  a  black  blind  should  be  thrown  over  the 
top  and  allowed  to  fall  down  closely  on  each  side.  There  are 
easels  sold  purposely,  and  provided  even  with  wooden  shutters, 
which  are  kept  open  by  hooks  fitting  into  the  top  shutter. 
The  retoucher  is  thus  inclosed  in  a  box,  and  gets  no  light 
except  that  which  comes  through  the  negative. 

The  choice  of  pencils  and  brushes  is  very  important,  the 


9$  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

great  desideratum  being  one  with  a  rough  texture  yet  capable 
of  taking  a  fine,  hard  point.  Such  an  one  is  the  best  octagonal 
black-lead  pencil  of  Faber,  which  in  contrast  with  many  is, 
as  a  retoucher  once  observed  to  us,  "  almost  capable  of  doing 
the  retouching  itself." 

It  is  desirable  to  have  three  or  four  different  degrees  of 
hardness  of  pencil,  so  as  to  suit  every  class  of  work,  the  HH, 
H,  F,  and  HB  being  the  most  suitable.  The  H  is  for  general 
work ;  the  HH  (the  hardest  of  the  four)  for  very  fine  and 
delicate  execution  and  where  little  labor  is  required.  The  F 
and  HB  are  suitable  for  heavier  penciling  when  the  shadows 
are  heavy  and  considerable  opacity  is  needed.  It  is  customary 
to  point  them  in  a  manner  quite  different  from  that  usually  fol- 
lowed. The  lead  is  laid  bare  to  the  extent  of  almost  an  inch, 
and  a  more  or  less  fine  point  given  to  it,  according  to  the  nega- 
tive under  treatment. 

The  brushes  should  be  sable,  and  very  soft.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  get  good  brushes,  so  they  should  be  chosen  with  great 
care.  They  must  be  pretty  thick,  not  too  long,  and  with  a 
very  good  point.  All  this  will  be  easily  found  out  by  dipping 
them  in  water  and  bending  them  about.  If  a  brush,  then,  at 
once  makes  a  fine  point,  it  is  a  good  one. 

The  two  colors  most  required  in  negative  retouching  are 
India  ink  and  light  blue.  The  first  is  the  most  opaque  color, 
but  as  the  latter  tint  is  the  nearest  to  the  negative,  it  will  permit 
of  finer  work. 

Finally,  stumps  of  different  sizes,  and  a  very  soft  camel's- 
hair  brush  for  dusting  the  surface  during  the  operation,  will 
complete  the  list  of  necessary  implements  for  the  retoucher. 

Gelatine  negatives  can  be  retouched  upon  without  being  var- 
nished, although  a  varnished  surface  is  often  preferred.  In 
any  case  the  film  requires  a  previous  preparation,  to  allow  the 
pencil  to  "  take."  This  is  done  by  rubbing  over  the  parts  to  be 
retouched  a  few  drops  of  the  S.  P.  C.  retouching  fluid,  either 
with  the  finger  or  a  small  tuft  of  cotton  wool.  The  fluid  should 
be  rubbed  in  well,  but  not  to  complete  dryness,  allowing  a 
slight  cuticle  of  it  to  remain,  which,  after  an  hour  or  two,  will 
be  dry  enough  to  work  upon.  After  a  negative  has  been  var- 


RETOUCHING   THE    XEGA'UVE.  99 

nished,  the  same  application  can  be  made,  provided  the  varnish 
is  dry. 

The  method  of  deadening  the  varnish  gloss  by  rubbing  over 
it  finely-powdered  cuttle-fish  bone  has  been  entirely  abandoned, 
as  upon  such  surface  the  pencil  works  gritty  and  irregularly. 
After  having  retouched  upon  the  gelatine  film,  the  negative 
may  be  varnished,  and  if,  as  it  occurs  at  times,  certain  parts 
have  not  attained,  sufficient  opacity,  the  varnished  plate  can  be 
retouched  over  again. 

The  negative  being  placed  on  the  frame,  as  described,  the 
light  should  be  regulated  according  to  its  density — the  greater 
the  density  of  the  negative  the  stronger  the  light  required — 
taking  care  always  to  use  the  lowest  degree  of  illumination 
consistent  with  the  complete  visibility  of  all  detail  and  half- 
tone. If  too  strong  a  light  be  used,  the  retouching  will  show 
more  forcibly  than  appears  in  the  negative,  and  will  ruin  its 
delicacy.  The  aperture  in  the  retouching  easel  should  not  be 
too  large,  or  there  will  be  a  flood  of  light  running  into  the  eyes 
that  will  not  only  dazzle  and  tire  them,  but  render  the  lighter 
and  more  delicate  tones  invisible. 

The  pencil  is  to  be  pointed  in  the  manner  described,  the  final 
"sharpening"  being  given  by  a  piece  of  emery  paper  or 
cloth,  a  little  care  being  necessary  to  avoid  breaking  the  long 
and  fine  point.  The  easiest  and  surest  method  is  to  work  the 
point  by  repeated  strokes  away  from  the  body,  and  not  to  rub 
it  sideways  or  backward  and  forward.  This  hint  will  be  found 
very  useful,  as  the  breaking  of  half  an  inch  of  point  is  very 
irritating. 

First  take  out  of  faces  all  freckles  and  marks,  blotches  of 
unequal  color,  etc.,  and  then  very  carefully  make  the  smallest 
possible  amount  of  alteration  in  what  is  usually  termed  the 
"modeling'- — that  is,  softening  very  heavy  shadows  and  in- 
creasing the  prominence  of  some  of  the  leading  lights.  This 
is  done  by  delicate  "  dabs  "  or  dots,  so  to  speak,  with  the  point 
of  the  pencil,  which  must  be  made  of  the  right  intensity  at 
once,  as  the  depth  cannot  be  increased  by  successive  washes  of 
color,  as  in  painting,  though  if  the  retouching  be  done  in  very 
fine  dotting  or  stippling,  extra  depth  may  be  got  by  carefully 
filling-in  between  the  first  pencilings. 


100  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

The  terms  "stippling"  and  "hatching,"  as  they  are  often 
employed,  may  be  briefly  described  as  dotting  and  lining,  re- 
spectively. When  there  are  transparent  parts  requiring  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  intensity  given  to  them,  it  will  be  found 
next  to  impossible  to  do  it  at  once,  and  then  the  only  plan  is  to 
make  a  first  retouching  upon  the  unvarnished  negatives  as  deep 
as  possible ;  varnish,  and  retouch  again.  After  the  spots  are 
all  taken  out  by  stippling,  the  modeling  may  be  done  by  hatch- 
ing, making  small  lines  only,  as  regular  in  size  and  distance 
apart  as  possible,  and,  as  much  as  can  be  done,  causing  them  to 
follow  the  lines  or  contours  of  the  features,  or  those  particular 
facial  developments  that  are  being  worked  upon.  It  is  import- 
ant that  the  hatching  should  be  done  in  a  regular  manner,  or  a 
very  scratchy  and  uneven  effect  will  be  produced.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  crossing  the  lines,  or  make  two  strokes 
touch  one  another,  this  being  a  fertile  source  of  "lumpy"  or 
"  scratchy "  work,  as  it  is  forcibly  called. 

It  will  be  found  of  great  use,  if  not  an  actual  necessity,  to 
have  a  magnifier  for  especially  delicate  work — not  to  be  made 
use  of  from  beginning  to  end,  but  merely  for  particular  por- 
tions of  the  work,  and  to  aid  a  general  scanning  of  the  whole 
when  completed,  so  as  to  pick  out  any  un evenness  or  rough- 
ness. If  used  all  through  it  causes  the  work,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  to  be  less  real  and  flesh-like,  and,  we  might  almost  sayr 
less  delicate.  The  glass  should  be  of  good  width,  so  that  both 
eyes  can  be  used,  and  it  is  better  if  it  can  be  affixed  to  a  per- 
manent support  which  will  hold  it  at  one  distance  from  the 
negative;  and  this  will  materially  lessen  the  fatigue  of  the- 
eyes  in  using  it. 

The  hatching  may  be  suitably  begun  at  the  forehead  and 
finished  at  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  working  from  the  high- 
est lights  to  the  shadows,  and  not  vice  versa.  Every  face  will 
impart  hints  as  to  the  leading  lights  and  shadows  under  vary- 
ing modes  of  illumination. 

We  conclude  by  pointing  out  some  alterations  which  may 
be  made  or  avoided  with  advantage.  One  of  the  commonest 
faults  of  .a  photograph  is  the  stern  or  "  cross  "  expression  so 
frequently  seen,  which  is  caused  by  a  too  strong  light.  One 


RETOUCHING    THE    NEGATIVE.  101 

of  the  chief  seats  of  this  expression  is  between  the  eyebrows. 
It  is  not  caused  by  the  perpendicular  line  or  lines,  more  or  less 
pronounced,  always  seen  there  in  persons  somewhat  advanced 
in  life,  but  is  produced  by  the  contraction  of  the  eyebrow, 
which  at  the  end  nearest  the  nose  will  be  found,  when  under 
this  expression,  to  have  taken  an  angular  form,  and  produced 
a  decidedly  darker  shadow  underneath  in  the  orbit.  If  the  cor- 
ner of  this  angle  be  taken  off,  and  the  heavy,  dark  shadow  be 
slightly  lessened,  the  effect  at  times  is  almost  magical ;  and  yet 
any  one  can  see,  by  looking  at  a  retouched  negative,  that  very 
few  retouchers  are  aware  of  this  simple  expedient,  it  being 
generally  thought  that  the  upright  furrows  cause  the  frown. 

The  portion  of  the  cheek  nearest  the  nose  should  be  most 
carefully  and  thoughtfully  done;  there  is  often  a  delicate 
shadow  which  is  liable  to  be  taken  out  by  the  unskilled  re- 
toucher, with  the  effect  of  producing  a  swelled  cheek.  The 
line  often  found  running  down  from  the  wings  of  the  nostrils 
should  be  carefully  lightened  with  the  aid  of  the  knowledge 
which  should  be  obtained  *by  a  slight  study  of  the  artist's  own 
face  in  a  mirror.  The  difference  between  a  smile  and  a  sneer 
is  caused  by  an  almost  imperceptible  difference  in  the  shading 
of  this  furrow  that  cannot  be  conveyed  in  words. 

And  there  is  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  where  much  may 
often  be  done  if  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  a  smile  the  corner 
of  the  lip  is  slightly  turned  up,  and  in  a  serious,  grave  or 
crying  expression  it  takes  an  opposite  direction.  The  hands 
may  often  be  improved  by  taking  out  the  swollen  veins  they 
frequently  present  in  the  photograph,  though  it  often  happens 
that  this  can  only  be  done  on  each  individual  print. 

In  landscape  negatives,  as  well  as  in  other  negatives,  all  hard 
shadows  should  be  softened,  and  the  lights  strengthened ;  but 
all  the  work  should  be  done  on  the  back  of  the  glass.  In  foli- 
age, negatives  taken  with  a  bright  sun,  the  nearest  trees  are 
often  wanting  in  detail,  while  the  more  distant  ones  are  quite 
sharp.  Prints  from  these  negatives  have  an  unpleasant  effect, 
the  different  lines  of  distances  being  too  distinctly  marked ; 
this  may  be  improved  by  touching  with  a  brush,  not  too 
pointed,  and  India  or  blue  ink,  representing  some  leaves  ac- 


102  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR, 

cording  to  the  lights  which  are  already  indicated.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  the  trees  retouched  in  this  way  from  the 
others  finely  obtained  on  the  negative. 

Finally,  if  there  are  any  strong  lights  to  be  put  on  negatives 
for  obtaining  effects  of  snow,  it  is  best  done  on  the  back  of  the 
negative,  either  on  tissue  paper  or  white  varnish. 

The  same  thing  may  be  done  in  negatives  of  clouds  which 
are  sharply  lighted  by  sunlight.  If  the  shadows  are  too  trans- 
parent, and  the  lights  too  hard,  put  in  some  half  tones,  and 
remove  the  varnish  from  the  lights.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
light  parts  are  weak,  strengthen  them  either  with  a  stump  or 
brush,  and  remove  the  varnish  from  the  shadows.  For  posi- 
tives and  enlargements  the  same  work  has  to  be  done,  and 
always  in  the  same  way. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  in  the  art  of  retouching  negatives 
it  is  only  in  the  first  step  that  any  difficulty  is  to  be  met  with, 
because,  being  the  most  important,  all  the  rest  follows  from  it, 
and  is,  so  to  speak,  only  the  same  thing  differently  applied. 
Therefore,  with  the  knowledge  of  these  few  various  methods, 
and  a  little  taste  and  practice,  one  may  be  almost  certain  of 
accomplishing  good  results. 


LESSON  XY. 

PHOTOGRAPHING  INTERIORS  AND  INANIMATE 
OBJECTS. 

INTERIORS. 

During  the  cold  months  of  winter,  when  the  earth  is  cov- 
ered with  snow,  and  the  trees  are  devoid  of  their  foliage,  the 
landscape  photographer  finds  fewer  attractive  subjects  for  his 
camera  than  in  the  seasons  when  nature  wears  brighter  gar- 
ments, and  presents  more  varied  scenes.  There  are  frost  and 
snow  pictures,  to  be  sure,  and  many  of  exquisite  beauty  ;  but 
they  are  difficult  to  find  with  the  camera,  and,  when  discov- 
ered, require  a  peculiar  skill  in  the  photographer  to  be  justly 
reproduced  on  his  plate.  At  this  season  of  the  year,  then,  to 
what  shall  we  turn  our  attention  1 

Portraits  and  in-door  groups,  copying,  and  the  photograph- 
ing of  interiors,  at  once  suggest  themselves  as  suitable  and 
pleasant  work  for  the  winter  m,onths ;  and  of  all  these,  the 
photographing  of  interiors  can  be  pursued  with  perhaps  the 
greatest  real  satisfaction  and  pleasure. 

Few  are  the  homes  that  have  not,  at  least,  one  room  that  will 
make  an  attractive  photograph  when  properly  lighted  and  ar- 
ranged. Indeed,  the  pleasant  mystery  often  is,  how  so  pretty 
a  photograph  could  be  made  of  "  our  very  plain  library."  But 
in  a  photograph  even  an  ordinary  appearing  room  acquires  a 
certain  dignity,  and  we  instinctively  think  of  palace  halls  and 
stately  mansions. 

Especially  attractive  do  one  or  more  rooms  appear  when 
seen  through  doorways  or  arches,  with  portiere-draped  back. 
And  then  there  are  so  many  corners  in  a  house,  mantels  and 
fire-places  that  make  pretty  vignette  photographs.  Not  only 


104  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

are  such  photographs  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  owner  when 
made  in  his  own  home,  but  those  of  churches,  theatres  and 
famous  buildings,  and  even  of  private  dwellings,  possess  not 
a  little  architectural  value. 

The  first  requisite  for  making  interiors  is  a  good,  perfectly 
rectilinear,  wide-angle  lens,  and  of  as  short  a  focus  as  will  per- 
fectly cover  the  plate  used.  A  forward-focus  camera  is  very 
convenient  sometimes  in  photographing  interiors,  for  often  it 
is  necessary  to  crowd  well  up  into  a  corner  in  order  to  get  a 
good  field.  Use  always  as  quick  a  plate  as  can  be  obtained,  for 
with  the  room  properly  lighted,  and  using  a  small  diaphragm, 
so  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  of  amount  of  detail  possible,  the 
exposure  is  long  enough,  even  with  the  quickest  plate,  to 
satisfy  the  most  obstinate  advocate  of  slow  emulsions. 

The  lighting  is,  perhaps,  the  cause  of  most  failures.  No 
direct  sunlight  must  be  admitted,  but  as  much  diffused  light  as 
possible,  and  the  more  the  better.  If  possible,  light  the  interior 
from  the  rear  and  sides ;  but  if  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  a 
window  in  front  of  the  lens,  it  must  be  carefully  closed  with 
its  shutters  and  a  curtain  drawn  over  them.  If  this  precaution 
is  not  taken,  "  halation  "  is  sure  to  follow — "  that  appearance 
of  halo — dark  in  the  negative,  light  in  the  print — which  makes 
its  appearance  around  very  bright  objects  in  photographs," 
which  Prof.  Burton  describes.  "When  the  sun  shines  directly 
through  the  rear  or  side  windows,  its  light  can  be  diffused  by 
drawing  the  shades  over  the  windows,  if  they  be  white ;  if  not, 
white  sheeting,  or  even  paper,  answers  well.  But  an  over- 
cast day,  if  it  be  not  too  dark,  is  the  best  for  photographing 
interiors. 

Halation  is  also  caused  by  light  which  is  reflected  from  the 
back  of  the  plate.  The  greater  part  of  the  transmitted  light 
strikes  the  back  of  the  plate.  That  traveling  in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  or  forming  a  large  angle  with  the  back  of  the 
glass,  is  transmitted  through  it ;  but  those  rays  which  strike  the 
back  of  the  glass  at  the  angle  of  total  reflection  are  sent  back 
to  the  front  surface,  where  they  pass  into  the  emulsion. 

The  means  of  avoiding  the  objectional  appearance  caused  in 
this  way  is,  of  course,  to  back  the  plate  with  some  substance 


PHOTOGRAPHING  INTERIORS  AND  INANIMATE  OBJECTS.        105 

which  absorbs  light.  Bitumen  answers  well  for  this  purpose, 
also  black  carbon  tissues  moistened  with  glycerine.  Plain 
paper  of  a  dead  black  surface,  cut  into  the  proper  size,  does 
very  well,  and  is  easy  to  obtain  and  adjust. 

By  the  use  of  paper  films,  instead  of  glass  plates,  for  making 
interiors,  one  cause  of  halation  is  largely  removed ;  but  even 
with  them  an  even  and  harmonious  light  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  order  to  be  perfectly  free  from  this  annoyance. 

Do  not  strive  after  effects  of  chiaro-oscuro.  We  must 
depend  on  our  arrangement  and  the  development  of  the  nega- 
tive alone  for  artistic  effect  in  the  work.  With  a  soft,  even 
light  over  the  entire  room  the  best  and  only  successful  interiors 
can  be  made. 

The  exposure  must  be  ample.  An  over-exposed  plate  on  an 
interior  can  be  treated  with  far  greater  chances  for  success  than 
one  which  has  been  under-timed ;  indeed,  an  under-exposed 
negative  had  best  be  thrown  into  the  waste-pile,  and  the  devel- 
oper, time  and  patience  of  the  operator  saved  for  less  hopeless 
attempts.  'No  definite  time  can  be  given  as  the  correct  one 
for  an  exposure  on  an  interior,  for  so  much  depends  on  the 
amount  and  degree  of  light,  which  is  ever  changing.  By 
experience  one  acquires  the  judgment  which  is  necessary  to 
decide  the  proper  length  of  exposure,  and  the  illumination 
on  the  ground-glass  soon  becomes  a  sure  sign  to  the  practiced 
eye. 

Development,  fixing  and  washing  is  proceeded  with  in  the 
usual  manner,  and,  if  the  exposure  be  correct,  will  be  found 
to  present  no  new  difficulties.  In  this,  as  in  everything  else, 
*"  practice  makes  perfect,"  and  by  practice  alone  can  we  hope 
to  attain  perfection. 

INANIMATE  OBJECTS. 

A  variety  of  mercantile  articles,  such  as  machinery,  inventors' 
models,  etc..  are  often  brought  before  the  photographer.  A 
few  hints  regarding  the  treatment  of  such  objects  may,  there- 
fore, also  be  mentioned  in  this  Lesson. 

Fabrics,  Paper  Hangings,  Embroideries,  etc. — If  it  is  the 
object  to  photograph  them  for  commercial  purposes,  they 


106  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

should  be  stretched  upon  a  plain  board  or  screen,  in  order  to 
present  a  plane  surface.  The  nature  of  their  colors  invariably 
demands  orthochromatic  plates. 

Laces  should  be  placed  similarly,  but  in  order  to  show 
the  delicacy  of  the  structure  they  should  be  fastened  upon 
a  ground  of  sharply-contrasting  color.  White  upon  black, 
or  vice  versa. 

Glassware. — Ornamented  or  cut  plates  are  copied  against  a 
dark  ground,  to  make  the  transparent  parts  appear  black  upon 
the  photograph. 

Hollow  Glassware,  Cut  or  Engraved,  may  be  filled  either 
with  a  colored  opaque  fluid,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  globes  or 
lamp  shades,  be  lined  with  dark  muslin.  They  should  receive 
such  an  illumination  as  to  produce  distinct  lights  and  shadowy 
without  which  the  photograph  will  not  be  plastic. 

Porcelain  or  Delf  should  be  similarly  lighted.  The  objects 
being  generally  white  and  glossy,  a  proper  exposure  is  impor- 
tant to  obtain  brilliant  lights  and  fine  shadows. 

Bronzes. — On  account  of  their  non-actinic  color  and  high 
gloss,  lighting  requires  good  judgment.  To  obtain  the  best 
general  effect,  a  slight  over-exposure  is  not  only  admissible  but 
sometimes  necessary. 

Silver  or  Plated-ware. — Owing  to  their  high  polish  these 
articles  can  be  photographed  only  in  very  subdued  light.  To 
avoid  inartistic  reflections,  the  skylight  or  windows  should  be 
covered  with  a  thin,  white  fabric  or  white  tissue-paper,  and  side 
screens  be  used  to  subdue  or  control  the  light.  In  order  to  do 
away  with  the  reflected  image  of  camera  and  operator,  often 
quite  visible  upon  larger  objects,  a  screen  of  neutral  color 
should  be  placed  immediately  in  front  of  the  camera,  allowing 
merely  an  aperture  for  the  lens. 

Machinery,  when  taken  out  of  doors,  is  quite  easy  to  man- 
age, but  much  trouble  occurs  when  the  object  is  to  be  photo- 
graphed in  the  shop,  store,  or  warehouse,  whose  light  is  gen- 
erally poor,  and  the  distance  from  the  position  the  camera  can 
occupy  perhaps  insufficient.  All  available  light  should  then  be 
admitted,  and  as  heavy  machinery  cannot  be  moved  at  the  will 
of  the  operator,  he  should  be  provided  with  several  lenses  of 
different  focal  length. 


PHOTOGRAPHING   INTERIORS    AND    INANIMATE    OBJECTS.       107 

Models. — The  inventor  directs  from  what  point  they  are  to 
be  taken,  and  he  knows  exactly  what  he  wants  to  show  in  the 
photograph.  The  United  States  Patent  Office  prescribes  a 
particular  size,  7x11  inches,  with  sufficient  margin.  Only  this 
size  is  acceptable. 

Plaster  of  Paris  Cornices,  Centre  Pieces,  Brackets,  etc., 
must  be  fastened  to  a  white  ground  and  be  placed  in  a  light 
falling  obliquely  upon  them,  to  secure  distinct  and  transparent 
shadows  and  brilliant  high  lights. 

Marble  Statuary  and  Similar  Works  of  Sculpture  require 
illumination  very  much  as  portraits  do,  allowing,  however,  for 
their  white  color.  The  technical  part  offers  no  difficulties,  but 
it  is  highly  important  to  preserve  a  good  balance  between  lights 
and  shadows. 

Furniture  and  Cabinet  Articles. — The  photographer  is  al- 
ways- inclined  to  place  them  in  a  perspective  position,  never 
quite  satisfactory  to  the  manufacturer,  whose  demands  should  be 
respected  at  least  in  this  respect.  The  difficulty  occurring  here 
is  to  make  the  quality  of  the  wood  show  distinctly  as  well  as 
the  upholstery  and  form. 

Flowers  and  leaves,  when  nicely  arranged,  make  very  inter- 
esting and  beautiful  photographs.  As  a  correct  representation 
of  color  values  is  one  of  the  first  conditions,  we  must  in- 
variably photograph  them  upon  orthochromatic  plates. 

All  these,  and  kindred  objects,  must  be  perfectly  sharp ;  very 
small  stops  should,  therefore,  be  employed  when  photograph- 
ing them.  Besides,  they  must  be  correctly  exposed  and  care- 
fully developed,  for  they  are  satisfactory  only  when  free  from 
blemishes. 


LESSON    XYI. 
COPYING,    ENLARGING   AND   REDUCING. 

PHOTOGRAPHERS  are  almost  daily  called  upon  to  copy  not  only 
photographs,  but  also  paintings  in  oil  or  water  colors,  engrav- 
ings, and  the  like.  The  mode  of  operating  does  not  differ 
much  from  that  heretofore  described,  but  several  important 
points  must  be  observed,  to  which  our  attention  has  not  yet 
been  directed,  and  without  which  this  work  will  give  but  little 
satisfaction. 

Reproductions  are  made  either  in  the  natural  size  of  the 
original,  enlarged  or  reduced.  In  any  case,  the  proportions  of 
the  original  must  be  preserved.  To  do  this  the  apparatus  must 
be  placed  directly  opposite  the  object  to  be  photographed,  and 
at  right  angles  to  it.  Obliquity  results  in  incorrect  pictures,  no 
matter  how  superior  the  lens  may  be.  The  object  to  be  copied 
should  receive  a  direct  front  light.  If  the  work  is  to  be  done 
under  the  skylight,  camera  and  object  may  be  placed  upon  an 
elongated  platform,  movable  upon  a  pivot  with  ball  and  socket 
arrangement,  so  as  to  place  the  original  in  a  position  oblique 
to  the  floor,  but  parallel  with  the  skylight.  If  the  object  be 
very  large,  side-screens  may  be  required  to  reflect  light,  or  to 
subdue  it  before  an  uniform  illumination  can  be  attained. 

We  have  seen,  in  practice,  that  the  farther  away  the  object  is 
from  the  camera  the  smaller  the  picture  will  be,  and,  by  reversing 
the  axiom,  we  find  that  a  very  much  enlarged  picture  can  be 
made  only  by  bringing  the  camera  close  to  the  object  to  be 
copied.  The  lesson,  "  Printing  on  Bromide  Paper,"  speaks  of 
enlargements ;  the  principles  laid  down  there  may  be  adhered 
to  in  all  other  methods  of  enlarging.  For  portraits,  when  the 
central  part  of  the  picture — the  head — is  the  main  object,  an 
ordinary  portrait  lens  may  be  used  ;  while  landscapes,  architec- 


COPYING,    ENLARGING    AND    REDUCING.  109 

tural  views,  drawings  or  engravings,  in  which  equal  sharpness 
all  over  the  picture  is  demanded,  rectilinear  lenses  must  be 
used,  like  the  Morrison  copying  lenses,  the  Wale,  "  Universal," 
the  Gundlach  rectigraph,  or  the  Steinheil  aplanat. 

A  new  apparatus,  the  Scovill  Enlarging,  Reducing  and 
Copying  Camera,  is  well  adapted  for  the  work.  Its  form  of 
construction  is  made  apparent  by  the  illustration  here  given : 


It  is  principally  intended  for  the  copying  of  negatives  or  glass 
positives ;  but  by  removing  the  kits  in  the  front,  the  lens  can  be 
inserted  into  the  same  opening,  rendering  the  apparatus  capable 
of  copying  other  objects  as  well.  To  copy  a  negative  in  the 
natural  size,  place  it  in  the  kit  on  the  front  of  camera  and 
button  it  in.  Attached  to  the  centre  frame  of  the  camera  is  a 
division  upon  which,  on  the  side  towards  the  camera  front,  a 
lens  is  mounted.  Suppose  this  to  be  a  quarter-plate  portrait 
lens,  the  focal  length  of  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  four 
inches  ;  draw  back  the  centre-frame  and  the  lens  to  twice  the 
focal  length  of  the  lens,  slide  the  back-frame  with  ground-glass 
the  same  distance  from  the  centre-frame.  To  enlarge  with  the 
same  lens  to  eight  times  the  size  of  the  original,  the  centre  of 
the  lens  must  be  four  and  one-half  inches  from  the  negative, 
and  the  ground-glass  be  thirty-six  inches  from  the  centre  of  the 
lens.  To  reduce  in  the  same  proportion,  reverse  and  have 
thirty-six  inches  from  the  center  of  the  negative,  and  from 
centre  of  lens  to  ground-glass  four  and  one-half  inches.  These 
examples  will  furnish  a  key  to  the  following : 


110 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


TABLE    FOR   ENLARGEMENTS. 

Taken  from  the  "  British  Journal  Almanac  for  1882." 


Focus  OF  LENS. 

TIMES  OF  ENLARGEMENT  AND  REDUCTION. 

In. 
2 

1 
In. 
4 
4 

2 
In. 
6 
3 

3 

In. 
8 
23^ 

4 
In. 
10 
2^ 

5 
In. 
12 
2f 

6 
In. 
14 

*i 

7 
In. 
16 

2f 

8 
In. 
18 
*i 

2K 

5 

5 

ly* 

3% 

10 
3£ 

12^ 
3^ 

15 
3 

17| 

2H 

20 

2f 

22^ 
HI 

3 

6 
6 

9 

4K 

12 
4 

15 

334 

18 
3f 

21 
3i 

24 
3f 

27 
3| 

3^ 

7 
7 

^ 
5k 

14 
*f 

1?K 
4^1 

21 
4i 

24| 
Si 

28 
4 

3H 
3lf 

4 

8 
8 

12 
6 

16 

5k 

20 
5 

24 
4f 

28 
4f 

32 

4* 

36 
4| 

4K 

9 

9 

13K 
« 

18 
6 

22^ 

5% 

27 
5f 

^ 

36 

5| 

40£ 

5TV 

5 

10 
10 

15 

^A 

20 
61 

25 

6k 

30 
6 

35 

5f 

40 
5f 

45 
5f 

5K 

11 
11 

16K 

8k 

22 

w* 

27K 
6^ 

33 
6K 

38i 
% 

44 
6f 

49^ 
5ft 

6 

12 
12 

18 
9 

24 

8 

80 

?K 

36 

n 

42 

7 

48 
6f 

54 
6f 

7 

14 
14 

21 
10K 

28 
9£ 

35 

8% 

42 

8f 

49 
8| 

56 

8 

63 

71 

8 

16 
16 

24 
12 

32 
lOf 

40 
10 

48 
»t 

56 
9i 

64 
9| 

72 
9 

9 

18 
18 

27 

13K 

36 

12 

45 
Ilk 

54 

lOf 

63 
10i 

72 
-10f 

81 
10i 

It  is  assumed  that  the  photographer  knows  exactly  what  the 
focus  of  his  lens  is,  and  that  he  is  able  to  measure  accurately 
from  its  optical  centre.  The  use  of  the  table  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  illustration:  A  photographer  has  a  carte  to 
enlarge  to  four  times  its  size,  and  the  lens  he  intends  employing 
is  one  of  six  inches  equivalent  focus.  He  must,  therefore,  look 
for  4  on  the  upper  horizontal  line,  and  for  6  in  the  first  vertical 
column,  and  carry  his  eye  to  where  these  two  join,  which  will 


COPYING,    ENLARGING    AND    REDUCING.  Ill 

be  at  30 — 7£.  The  greater  of  these  is  the  distance  the  sensitive 
plate  must  be  from  the  centre  of  the  lens ;  and  the  lesser,  the 
distance  of  the  picture  to  be  copied.  To  reduce  a  picture  any 
given  number  of  times  the  same  method  must  be  followed,  but 
in  this  case  the  greater  number  will  represent  the  distance  be- 
tween the  lens  and  the  picture  to  be  copied ;  the  latter,  that 
between  the  lens  and  the  sensitive  plate.  This  explanation  will 
be  sufficient  for  every  case  of  enlargement  or  reduction. 

If  the  focus  of  the  lens  be  twelve  inches,  as  this  number  is 
not  in  the  column  of  focal  lengths,  look  out  for  6  in  this  column 
and  multiply  by  2 ;  and  so  on  with  any  other  numbers. 

Reproductions  require  proportionally  much  longer  time  of 
exposure  than  portraits  or  landscapes,  and  in  this  particular 
point  frequent  errors  are  made,  generally  towards  over-expos- 
ures. The  operator  must  learn  by  practice  how  much  time  to 
give,  probably  with  the  loss  of  a  few  plates,  before  the  required 
experience  can  be  attained. 

As  with  the  full  aperture  of  the  lens,  enlarged  pictures  will 
appear  upon  the  ground-glass  with  a  want  of  definition,  small 
stops  become  necessary  to  retain  the  original  sharpness. 

Oil  paintings  demand  almost  invariably  a  direct  front  illumi- 
nation. If,  from  the  glossy  varnish,  reflections  occur,  they  must 
be  counteracted  by  a  dark  side  screen ;  naturally  with  loss  of 
much  light.  Aquarelles  or  pastelles  appearing  brighter  are 
easier  to  copy. 

Daguerreotypes  or  pictures  under  glass  must,  on  account  of 
their  reflecting  properties,  be  placed  so  that  reflections  of  light 
are  overcome.  Daguerreotypes  often  show  buff  marks  upon 
polishing  the  metallic  plate.  It  is  better  to  copy  them  by  di- 
rect or  reflected  sunlight.  Photographs  when  highly  burnished 
or  enamelled  receive  the  same  treatment  as  other  pictures  with 
glossy  surfaces.  Ordinary  photographs  generally  copy  very 
well,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  those  very  much  enlarged, 
when  the  grain  of  the  paper  shows  rather  too  strongly. 

Plates  may  be  developed  as  described  in  Lesson  Y,  or  with 
any  of  the  standard  formulae  for  developers. 

For  line  work,  when  a  negative  in  black  and  white  only  is 
desirable,  and  when  no  half  tones  or  modulations  are  to  be  pre- 


112  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

served,  we  resort  to  the  ferrous  oxalate  developer  described  in 
the  Lesson  on  "  Printing  on  Permanent  Bromide  Paper. " 
For  that  class  of  work,  time  of  exposure  is  even  more  important 
than  for  ordinary  copying,  as  by  a  probable  reinforcing,  or  long- 
continued  developing,  the  sharpness  of  lines  is  often  consider- 
ably damaged,  making  the  negative  utterly  worthless  if  a  relief 
plate  is  to  be  made  from  it.  Referring  to  the  formula  de- 
scribed before,  we  take  three  ounces  of  the  solution  of  oxalate 
of  potash  and  add  to  it  one  ounce  of  the  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron.  If  more  iron  is  used,  the  mixed  solution  will  turn  turbid 
and  separate  a  yellow  precipitate  ;  in  such  a  state  it  should  not 
be  used.  The  perfectly  clear  and  transparent  red  solution  is 
poured  over  the  plate,  and  the  appearance  of  the  image  closely 
watched.  If  the  image  comes  with  anything  like  rapidity,  pour 
the  developer  off,  wash  slightly,  and  flood  the  plate  with  a  solu 
tion  of  pure  oxalate  fora  minute  or  two,  pour  off,  and  without 
washing,  continue  with  the  original  developer.  If  the  effects 
of  over-exposure  are  still  apparent,  restrain  with 

Iodine 15  grains 

Alcohol 3J^  ounces 

to  which,  after  being  dissolved,  add  three  and  a  quarter  ounces 
of  water. 

From  fifteen  to  twenty  drops  of  this  compound  added  to  the 
developer  will  secure  the  intensity  and  clearness  of  the  lines 
desirable  in  black  and  white  negatives. 

Whenever  legal  documents,  autographs,  commercial  papers, 
etc.,  are  to  be  reproduced,  this  method  will  prove  to  be  per- 
fectly reliable. 


'LESSON    XVII. 

ORTHOCHROMATIC,    OR    COLOR-SENSITIVE 
PHOTOGRAPHY. 

WHEN  we  subject  a  photograph  to  critical  examination,  and 
compare  the  effects  which  colors  have  produced  upon  our  plate, 
with  their  appearance  of  brightness  or  value  of  tone  in  the 
original,  we  find  that  our  reproduction  is  very  far  from  a  correct 
representation  of  what  the  eye  has  seen.  While  form,  light  and 
shade  have  been  photographed  in  perfect  correspondence  with 
the  original,  colors  have  not  been  so  reproduced.  Our  plates 
copy  the  bright  yellowish-green  of  vernal  foliage  quite  dark, 
and  the  far-distant  blue  mountains  in  a  landscape  so  extremely 
light,  that  most  careful  development  is  not  capable  of  render- 
ing them  harmoniously  with  the  general  aspect  of  the  scene. 
The  bright  scarlet  blossom  of  the  geranium  copies  like  the 
green  leaves  of  the  plant;  the  crimson  tulips,  seamed  with 
yellow,  show  no  color  contrast ;  and  the  dark  blue  hyacinth 
appears  nearly  white  in  the  ordinary  photograph. 

The  cause  of  this  untruthfulness  in  photography  was  well 
understood  by  the  earliest  experimenters,  they  knowing  very 
well  why  different  effects  could  not  be  expected. 

All  light  does  not  act  upon  a  photographic  surface,  but  only 
certain  parts  of  light. 

The  force  or  power  that  causes  photographic,  or  photo-chem- 
ical action,  scientists  have  called  actinism  /  and  the  active  rays, 
actinic. 

Actinic  rays  are  those  found  at  one  end  of  the  spectrum,  the 
violet  and  blue,  called  most  refrangible  by  spectrum  analysts. 
Eed,  orange  and  yellow,  at  the  other  end  of  the  spectrum,  do 
not  act  at  all,  or  but  very  feebly.  The  latter  rays  do  not  de- 
viate so  much  from  the  path  of  undivided  light,  as  blue  and 
violet  do,  and  are,  therefore,  called  less  refrangible. 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

If  we  expose  an  ordinary  photographic  plate  at  the  solar' 
spectrum,  these  effects  will  show  to  perfection  how  differently 
the  two  ends  of  the  spectrum  work.  Violet  and  blue  will  give 
very  pronounced  impressions,  but  they  will  diminish  more  and 
more,  until,  at  the  other  end  of  the  spectrum,  no  effect  is 
visible. 

This  is  exactly  what  we  notice  in  every-day  photographs. 
Yellow  and  orange  copy  much  too  dark ;  some  reds  do  not 
impress  the  plate  at  all ;  and  blue  and  violet,  no  matter  how 
dark  they  may  be,  invariably  come  too  light ;  and  the  variety 
of  colors  in  fabrics,  embroideries,  paintings,  and  many  natural 
objects  have  thus  given  endless  dissatisfaction  to  the  photog- 
rapher. 

For  many  years  it  was  considered  as  impossible  to  remedy 
these  defects,  as  we  now  think  it  impossible  to  photograph  colors 
themselves. 

With  orthochromatic  or  color-sensitive  plates  we  overcome 
these  difficulties,  and  produce  effects  nearly  correct  in  their 
value  of  brightness. 

An  immense  amount  of  practical  work  and  labor  had  to  be 
done,  before  anything  worthy  of  interest  was  attained,  but  we 
cannot  deny  that  the  discovery  of  the  process  is  based  abso- 
lutely upon  theories,  and  has  been  established  by  experiments 
in  spectroscopy.  These  experiments  were  based  again  uppn 
one  principle,  that  is,  the  addition  of  some  substances,  possess- 
ing the  power  of  absorbing  and  converting  into  chemical 
energy  those  rays  which  upon  an  ordinary  plate  have  no  effect. 
For  this  purpose,  a  large  number  of  dye-stuffs  were  found  to 
be  most  effective.  They  are  themselves  sensitive  to  light,  for 
they  bleach  wThen  exposed  to  it.  Bleaching  action  was  found 
to  be  strongest  on  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  which  has  no 
effect  on  ordinary  plates.  The  most  generally  adopted  theory 
for  this  is,  that  the  energy  absorbed  in  bleaching  the  dye  is 
transmitted  to  the  silver  haloid  of  the  plate,  overcoming  its 
passiveness  and  rendering  it  capable  of  development. 
*  Of  the  many  dyes  that  have  been  experimented  with,  only  a 
few  have  been  retained  although  many  more  are  being  added, 
according  to  the  researches  constantly  made.  It  is  true,  not 


ORTHOCHROMATIC,  OR  COLOR- SENSITIVE  PHOTOGRAPHY.       115 

all  of  these  dyes  sensitize  alike,  or  for  several  colors  at  the 
same  time,  and  as  the  spectrum  photographer  proposes  to 
examine  distinct  spectrum-regions  with  distinct  media,  the 
practical  photographer  selects  colors  that  give  the  best  general 
effect. 

Some  of  the  dyes,  known  by  the  name  of  eosines,  answer 
admirably,  though  many  of  them  do  not,  and  all  of  them 
refuse  to  reproduce  red  beyond  a  certain  point.  A  very  happy 
combination  of  dyes,  belonging  to  another  class,  has  been 
made,  which  cause  sensitiveness  far  into  the  regions  of  the 
spectrum  red.  This  action  is  due  to  one  of  its  ingredients, 
cyanine,  or  chinoline  blue,  the  most,  red  sensitive  substance 
known. 

To  obtain  the  best  general  effects  in  pigment  colors,  we 
employ  another  dye,  the  erythrosine,  which  is  also  an  eosine. 
"With  it  the  best  practical  results  can  be  obtained,  for  it  sensi- 
tizes to  perfection  up  to  orange,  yellow  and  green,  giving,  at 
times,  quite  correct  reproductions  even  of  red,  when  that  color 
is  not  perfectly  pure  but  partly  mixed  with  other  colors. 
And  we  find  but  rarely  pure  red  in  pictures,  fabrics  or  em- 
broideries, hence  erythrosine  has  been  selected  pre-eminently 
as  the  sensitizer  for  commercial  plates  and  every-day  work. 

Occasionally,  cyanine,  in  small  portions,  is  added  to  the  ery- 
throsine to  obtain  better  red-sensitiveness,  and  it  acts  then 
very  satisfactory  in  that  combination. 

Violets  and  blues  will,  even  with  these  plates,  exercise  a  very 
violent  action,  and,  to  suppress  it,  a  ray  filter,  principally  of  a 
pure  yellow  color,  is  employed,  it  being  placed  between  the 
lens  and  the  sensitive  plate. 

At  first,  the  dye  itself  was  incorporated  with  the  emulsion, 
and  with  that  the  plates  were  coated.  Practical  work,  and  Mr. 
Plener,  with  his  centrifugal  machine,  showed  that  but  an 
extremely  small  quantity  of  color  was  requisite  to  give  effects. 
In  fact,  after  an  emulsion  had  been  colored,  he  separated  from 
it  the  bromide  of  silver,  re-emulsified  it,  and,  with  the  infinites- 
imal amount  of  color  combined  with  the  silver,  obtained  the 
same  effects.  All  this  led  to  the  redemption  of  an  almost-forgot- 
ten process,  the  staining  of  ready-coated  plates  to  color-sensitize 
them. 


116  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

This  way  of  working  has  become  more  popular  than  any 
other  method,  and  although  color-sensitive  plates,  colored  in 
the  emulsion,  have  become  an  article  of  commerce,  stained,  or 
bathed  plates,  as  they  are  commonly  termed,  seem  to  be  pre- 
ferred by  most  operators. 

For  general  work  erythrosine  has  been  found  to  be  the  most 
effective,  and  a  preparation  known  as  Flandreau's  8.  P.  C, 
Orthochromatic  Solution  carries  it  as  chief  ingredient. 

With  this  solution  any  photographer  may  make  his  'own 
orthochromatic  plates,  and  any  good  plate  may  successfully  be 
rendered  orthochromatic  by  simply  bathing  it  with  the  ery- 
throsine solution. 

When  orthochromatic  plates  are  used  for  reproductions  of 
landscape  work,  it  is  advisable  to  color-sensitize  plates  of  only 
moderate  rapidity.  The  Carbutt  "B"  and  the  Cramer,  of 
lower  grade,  answer  very  well  for  this  purpose,  while  for 
shorter  exposures  the  "  Eclipse  "  is  better  adapted. 

The  formulae  are  as  follows : 

PRELIMINARY  BATH. 

Aqua  ammonia 1  dram 

Water 7  ounces 

COLOR  BATH. 

Erythrosine 1*^  drams 

Aqua  ammonia 2      drams 

Water  (distilled) 5%  ounces 

and  the  directions  are  simple. 

Immerse  a  plate  of  medium  sensitiveness  in  the  preliminary 
bath  and  allow  it  to  remain  therein  for  three  minutes.  After 
removal,  drain  well,  and,  without  washing,  plunge  the  plate  in 
the  coloring-bath,  rocking  it  gently  to  secure  uniform  contact 
with  the  solution.  The  plate  should  not  remain  in  the  color-bath 
longer  than  seventy-five  seconds,  as  a  long-continued  exposure 
to  the  color-solution  will  depress  the  general  sensitiveness  with- 
out increasing  that  for  colors.  If  a  large  number  of  plates  are 
prepared  with  the  same  solution  it  is  advisable  to  add,  after  the 
eighth  or  tenth  plate,  about  ten  to  twenty  drops  of  the  eryth- 
rosine solution.  The  colored  plates  must  be  well  drained, 
reared  upon  blotting-paper,  and  dried  in  the  ordinary  closet. 


ORTHOCHROMATIC,  OR  COLOR-SENSITIVE  PHOTOGRAPHY.       117 

Colored  plates  may  be  exposed  while  still  wet,  and  the 
general  sensitiveness  is  somewhat  decreased  thereby.  If,  how- 
ever, the  object  to  be  photographed  requires  a  very  long 
exposure,  it  is  better  to  use  a  dried  plate. 

The  development  of  erythrosine  plates  offers  no  serious  diffi- 
culties ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  plates,  being  so 
sensitive  to  color,  especially  to  yellow,  the  process  must  be 
carried  on  either  in  the  shadow  of  a  subdued  ruby  lantern,  or 
in  a  light  obscured  by  several  thicknesses  of  brown  tissue 
paper. 

To  suppress  the  violent  action  of  blue  and  violet,  a  yellow 
screen  is  placed  between  the  sensitive  surface  and  the  objective ; 
the  best  method  being  to  fasten  the  screen  on  the  back  of  the 
front  bearing  the  lens.  It  being  difficult  to  obtain  glass  of  pure 
yellow  color,  photographers  prepare  these  screens  themselves 
by  coating  a  very  thin  and  white  plane  parallel  glass  with 
xanthine  collodion. 

The  yellow  color  imparted  to  the  collodion  is  sensitive  to 
light,  and  plates  prepared  with  it  will  fade  when  exposed 
unnecessarily  for  a  long  time. 

With  the  interposition  of  the  yellow  screen  (which  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  the  copying  of  objects  in  which  blue  and 
violet  predominates),  the  time  of  exposure  must  be  increased 
from  three  to  six  times  that  of  an  ordinary  plate. 

With  artificial  light  of  sufficient  force  the  yellow  screen  can 
be  dispensed  with ;  a  yellow  cylinder-globe  or  shade  placed  over 
the  source  of  light  answering  equally  well. 

The  yellow  glass  should  be  very  thin ;  if  unnecessarily  thick, 
the  time  of  exposure  becomes  longer.  Focus  should  be  taken 
with  it,  as  a  refraction  of  light  may  occur,  making  a  perceptible 
difference. 

The  reproduction  of  oil  paintings,  aquarells,  fabrics  and  other 
articles  colored  highly  in  various  shades,  does  not  require  any 
particular  precautions.  When  much  red  is  present,  the  exposure 
should  be  lengthened ;  with  the  absence  of  blue,  the  yellow 
screen  may  be  dispensed  with,  neither  is  it  required  for  general 
landscape  work.  Artificial  light,  rich  in  yellow  and  orange 
light,  allows  work  without  the  screen. 


118  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

As  a  formula  for  developing,  which  gives  very  good  results. 
we  may  adopt : 

1. — Granulated  sulphite  of  soda 3  ounces 

Water 1  quart 

In  this  solution  dissolve  : 

2. — Pyrogallic  acid %  ounce 

Granulated  carb.  of  soda 2  ounces 

Water '. 1  quart 

For  normal  exposure  add  1  ounce  of  water  to  1  ounce  of 
each  'No.  1  and  No.  2. 

All  orthochromatic  plates  should  receive  a  full  exposure  j 
but  if  too  much  time  has  been  given,  restrain  with  bromide 
of  potassium,  not  with  bromide  of  ammonium. 

Development  had  better  be  commenced  in  total  darkness. 
After  the  expiration  of  two  minutes,  when  the  color-stuff  has 
been  partly  washed  away,  the  plate  may  be  examined  in  a  weak 
red  light,  and  the  process  may  therein  be  continued.  Fixing, 
washing,  intensifying  or  reducing  is  accomplished  in  the  same 
way  as  with  ordinary  plates.  With  some  emulsions  the  color 
is  difficult  to  wash  off  the  plate ;  when  this  is  the  case,  a  little 
alcohol  will  remove  it  more  effectually  than  water. 


LESSON  XVIII. 
TRANSPARENCIES,  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM. 

THERE  are  various  methods  and  processes  for  making  trans- 
parencies, many  of  which  have  passed  into  history,  and,  as 
the  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  place  before  the  reader  the  latest 
method,  combining  simplicity  of  manipulation  with  perfection 
of  result,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  enumerate  the  various 
methods  of  the  past,  without  entering  into  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  them.  They  comprise  the  albumen  ;  collodio-albumen  ; 
collodio-bromide ;  bathed  dry-plate,  in  which  a  bromo-iodized 
collodion -plate  is  sensitized  in  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  and, 
after  being  washed,  is  coated  with  a  preservative ;  collodio- 
chloride,  wet  collodion  process,  which  is  still  used  by  profes- 
sional slide-makers  ;  carbon,  and  the  Woodbury  processes. 

At  the  present  time  two  processes  only  are  in  use  in 
America,  viz.:  the  old  wet  collodion  process  and  the  new  gela- 
tine dry-plate  process.  The  first  is  limited  in  its  use  to  those 
who  make  lantern-slides  mainly  for  advertising  purposes, 
while  the  new  gelatine  dry-plate,  of  the  special  kind  made  for 
producing  transparencies  known  as  Carbutt's  gelatino-albumen 
plate,  is  almost  universally  used  by  amateurs  and  the  profes- 
sional portrait  and  landscape  photographer.  It  is  in  the  use  of 
these  plates,  therefore,  that  we  shall  proceed  to  describe  the 
necessary  operations. 

The  requisites  for  contact  printing  are  a  deep  printing- 
frame  a  size  larger  than  the  negative  to  be  used,  with  a  flat, 
glass  bottom  free  from  scratches  (crystal  plate  is  best);  some  thin 
red  enameled  label  paper  for  masks,  a  Carbutt  "  Multum  in 
Parvo"  lantern  or  other  artificial  light,  and  transparency  plates 
of  the  suitable  size.  Those  for  lantern -slides  are  made  on  thin 
crystal  glass  of  the  now  accepted  standard  size,  3J  by  4  inches  ; 


120  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

for  the  larger  size  transparencies  they  are  made  on  fine  ground- 
glass,  which  has  the  advantage  over  the  clear  glass,  that  the 
image  is  rendered  in  its  right  position  when  made  by  contact 
with  the  negative,  just  as  a  silver  print  would  be,  the  obscured 
side  of  the  glass  being  back  of  the  image,  and  it  only  remaining 
to  cover  it  with  a  clear  glass  and  mount  in  a  suitable  sized 
metal  frame  which  is  sold  for  that  purpose.  The  transparency 
need  not  be  confined  to  the  size  of  the  negative ;  the  image 
can  be  enlarged  or  reduced  to  suit  the  taste  and  circumstances  ; 
nor  is  it  absolutely  necessary,  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  or 
reducing  the  image,  that  a  camera  be  provided,  if  the  use  of  a 
small  room  can  be  commanded,  and  the  light  shut  out  from  all 
but  one  part  of  the  lower  sash.  Over  this  light  must  be 
placed,  and  covering  the  entire  surface,  a  sheet  of  fine  ground- 
glass,  which  will  give  an  evenly  diffused  light  to  pass  through 
the  negative  ;  beneath  this  a  support  for  the  negative  should 
be  placed.  The  same  camera  and  lens  used  in  making  the 
negative  can  be  employed  for  making  the  transparency,  pro- 
vided the  image  is  to  be  reduced  in  size,  and  the  negative  can 
be  held  upright  in  one  of  the  plate -holders.  The  camera  itself 
may  be  supported  on  a  board  raised  to  such  a  height  that  the 
lens  will  center  with  the  center  of  the  negative.  Care  should 
be  taken,  in  adjusting  it,  that  the  side  of  the  camera  and  the 
face  of  the  plate-holder  holding  the  negative  forms  a  perfect 
right  angle.  If  it  is  desirable  to  make  an  enlarged  transpar- 
ency, say  from  a  4x5  or  a  5x8  negative  to  an  8x10  plate, 
the  same  camera  and  lens  must  be  used,  but  the  ground-glass 
of  the  camera  must  be  removed,  so  that  the  magnified  image 
may  pass  through  the  camera  into  the  sensitive  plate,  sup- 
ported in  an  upright  position  at  the  distance  found  to  be  cor- 
rect. To  ascertain  this  the  camera  with  its  lens  should  slide 
easily  between  two  strips,  for,  unless  your  camera  is  provided 
with  a  front  rack  movement,  you  will  have  to  move  the  cam- 
era, and  with  it  the  lens,  to  obtain  a  focus,  using  a  light  of 
glass  on  which  is  stretched  a  piece  of  white  paper  to  obtain  a 
focus,  and  placed  against  a  support  on  the  board  carrying  the 
camera,  and  at  right  angle  with  the  base  of  it.  This  is  sup- 
posing you  are  working  in  a  room  in  which  all  light,  except 


TRANSPARENCIES,  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM.  121 

that  passing  through  the  negative,  is  excluded  before  placing 
the  negative  in  the  holder  or  support.  If  it  is  desirable  to 
have  a  margin  on  the  transparency,  cut  out  a  mask  from  the 
thin,  red  enamelled  paper  or  tin-foil,  and  place  on  the  face  of 
the  negative,  being  careful  to  see  that  the  margin  shows 
equally  around  the  large  plate  or  focusing  screen. 

While  the  foregoing  description  will  enable  any  one  to 
produce  enlarged  or  reduced  transparencies  from  their  nega- 
tives, it  is  but  a  makeshift,  and  will  be  found  to  entail  great 
loss  of  time  and  uncertainty  in  working,  which  can  be 
avoided  by  using  a  properly- constructed  camera,  such  as  that 
made  by  the  Scovill  Manufacturing  Co.*  The  writer  of  this 
article  has  had  one  in  use  for  years.  The  end  holding  the 
negative  has  adjustments  for  centering  the  image,  and  the 
extended  range  of  adjustment  of  the  lens  enables  a  lantern 
transparency  to  be  made  from  an  8x10  negative,  or  vice  versa; 
an  8x10  transparency  from  a  3Jx4J,  or  other  intermediate  sized 
negative. 

Having  explained  the  tools  required,  let  us  now  proceed  with 
our  description  of  the  chemicals  required  and  the  making  of 
the  proper  solutions. 

Of  chemicals  will  be  required  the  following: 

Neutral  oxalate  of  potash 1  pound 

Sulphate  of  iron 1  pound 

Hyposulphite  of  soda 5  pounds 

Alum  1  pound 

Citric  acid .  ^  pound 

Liquor  ammonia 4  ounces 

Plain  collodion  varnish . .  8  ounces 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  procuring  of  chemi- 
cals of  the  greatest  purity ;  especially  is  it  necessary  that  the 
iirst  two  articles  named  should  be  pure.  Many  have  been  dis- 
appointed in  their  efforts  at  transparency-making  by  applying 
to  the  country  druggist  for  oxalate  of  potash  and  have  been 
supplied  with  bin-oxalate  of  potash ;  be  careful,  therefore,  to 
procure  the  chemicals  from  a  reliable  dealer  in  photographic 
materials.  In  compounding  the  solutions,  first  prepare,  by  a 
thorough  cleansing,  suitable  sized  bottles ;  for  the  bulky  solu- 

*  Described  minutely  in  Lesson  XIV. 


122  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

tions,  nothing  is  better  than  the  ordinary  glass  preserve  jar ; 
and  for  labels,  a  safe  plan  is  to  cut  from  the  circular  accom- 
panying the  plates  you  are  to  use  the  formulae,  and  paste  them 
on  the  glass  jar  to  contain  the  solution  it  describes.  Next  in 
importance  is  the  water;  clear,  soft  river  or  spring  water, 
melted  ice  or  distilled  water,  as  is  most  convenient,  should  be 
used,  but  never  hard  water  containing  lime  in  solution. 

We  shall  now  describe  a  very  excellent  plan  that  has  been 
used  for  years  in  dissolving  large  crystals — a  method  that  does 
away  with  the  use  of  a  pestle  and  mortar.  After  filtering  the 
A  solution  of  following  formula,  select  a  one-half  gallon  glass 
preserve  jar ;  and  for  B  solution,  a  quart  jar.  Measure  into 
each  one  the  quantity  of  water  required,  except  that  in  the  B 
solution  a  few  ounces  of  the  water  may  be  reserved  until  after 
solution  of  the  iron  salt.  To  dissolve  the  salts,  so  as  to  need 
no  after-filtering,  take  a  common  domestic  salt  bag,  washed  to 
free  from  salt,  and  in  this  place  the  crystals  and  suspend  it  in 
the  w^ater  so  that  the  bulk  of  the  salt  is  just  covered  by  the 
water ;  immediately  a  stream  of  denser  liquid  will  be  seen 
falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar ;  this  will  continue  until  the 
whole  of  the  salts  are  dissolved  and  a  clear  solution  is  the 
result ;  then  remove  the  bag,  give  the  bottle  or  jar  a  shake, 
and  the  solution  is  ready.  The  same  method  is  to  be  employed 
in  dissolving  the  iron  and  hyposulphite  of  soda,  using  a  separ- 
ate bag  for  each  one,  and  completing  one  before  commencing 
the  other.  Having  everything  ready,  carefully  weigh  out  by 
avoirdupois  weight  the  chemicals,  and  make  solutions  as  per 
following  formula : 

CARBUTT'S  IMPROVED  DEVELOPER  FOR  TRANSPARENCIES. 

a.  Oxalate  of  potash ....     8  ounces 

Water 30  ounces 

Citric  acid 60  grains 

Citrate  of  ammonia  solution 2  ounces 

b.  Sulphate  of  iron 4  ounces 

Water .* 32  ounces 

Sulphuric  acid 8  drops 

c.  Citrate  of  Ammonia  Solution. — Dissolve  1  ounce  citric  acid  in  5 
ounces  distilled  water,  add  liquor  ammonia  until  a  slip  of  litmus  paper 
just  loses  the  red  color,  then  add  water  to  make  the  whole  measure  8- 
ounces. 


TRANSPARENCIES,  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM.  123 

Developer, — Add  1  ounce  of  B  to  2  of  A,  and  %  ounce  water  and  3  to 
6  drops  bromide  solution. 

In  the  making  of  transparencies,  the  first  requisite  is  a  good 
negative,  and  every  effort  and  care  should  be  taken  when  pro- 
ducing it,  to  insure  its  freedom  from  imperfections ;  the  second 
requisite  is  a  suitable  artificial  light  for  use  when  making 
exposures  by  contact,  and  we  know  of  none  better  than 
Carbutt's  "Multum  in  Parvo"  Lantern,  designed  especially  for 


this  class  of  work.  It  has  a  safe  light  in  front,  to  be  used 
when  developing  negatives  or  transparencies ;  two  side  doors, 
that  to  the  left  when  opened  emitting  clear,  white  light ;  and 
a  reflector  attached  to  the  revolving  lamp,  which  throws 
parallel  rays  towards  the  printing-frame  holding  the  negative 
and  sensitive  plate.  The  door  on  the  right,  when  opened, 
reveals  a  light  of  opal  glass,  through  which  the  soft  white  light 
allows  the  negative  or  positive  to  be  examined.  The  third 
requisite  is  suitable  sized  developing  dishes,  and  these  should 
be  of  porcelain  or  the  enameled  iron  ware,  and  cannot  be  used 
with  the  pyro  developer  without  risk  of  staining  the  transpar- 
encies, as  we  use  for  them  the  ferrous-oxalate  developer  only. 
Having  now  provided  ourselves  with  the  necessary  requisites 
for  the  work,  we  can  proceed  with  the  making  of  transparen- 
cies, beginning  with  the  popular  lantern-slide.  For  convenience 
of  exposing  the  plate,  the  lantern  should  be  hung  in  front  of 
the  operator  so  that  the  bottom  is  about  twelve  inches  from 


124  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

the  work-bench.  To  the  left,  and  in  line  with  the  bottom  of 
lantern,  should  be  fixed  a  bracket-shelf,  so  that  the  printing- 
frame  can  be  supported  at  a  distance  of  about  twenty  inches 
from  the  lamp-flame.  We  now  place  our  negative  glass  in 
contact  with  the  glass  in  a  deep  printing-frame  ;  a  suitable  size 
is  6Jx8£,  for  that  answers  for  5x8  and  under ;  over  this  place 
one  of  Carbutt's  thin,  crystal,  transparency  plates,  so  as  to  cover 
the  portion  of  the  negative  desired ;  lay  a  piece  of  dark  felt  or 
other  soft  material  over  it ;  close  down  the  back ;  turn  the  lamp 
of  the  lantern  by  the  knob  underneath,  so  that  the  reflector 
faces  to  the  left  door  of  the  lantern  ;  and  allow  the  clear  light 
to  act  from  ten  to  fifteen  seconds ;  close  the  door  of  the  lan- 
tern ;  remove  the  plate  from  the  printing-frame  ;  place  in  a 
4Jx5£  porcelain  dish,  and  flow  over  sufficient  of  the  developer 
to  well  cover  the  plate.  If  correctly  timed,  the  image  should 
appear  slowly,  taking  two  or  three  minutes  to  complete ;  allow 
the  development  to  continue,  however,  until  the  blacks  look 
quite  strong,  and  detail  is  plainly  showing  in  the  high  lights ; 
then  wash  off  the  developer,  and  immerse  in  a  fresh  solution 
of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  (pyro-developed  negatives  should 
not  be  fixed  in  the  same  solution),  made  by  dissolving  8  ounces 
of  the  salt  in  40  ounces  of  water,  in  the  same  manner  as 
directed  for  dissolving  the  iron  salt.  Let  the  transparency 
remain  in  the  fixing-bath  three  to  five  minutes  after  the  white 
bromide  seems  cleared  from  the  plate ;  wash  for  half  an  hour  in 
running  water ;  then  immerse  for  five  minutes  in  the 

HARDENING  SOLUTION. 

Water 36  ounces 

Pulverized  alum 3  ounces 

Citric  acid Bounce 

Afterwards  wash  again,  and  this  time  for  twenty  minutes  to 
half  an  hour ;  then  carefully  go  over  the  surface  with  a  tuft  of 
absorbent  cotton,  while  water  is  running  over  it,  give  a  final 
rinse,  and  place  in  a  drying-rack  to  dry  spontaneously.  Finally, 
varnish  with  plain 

COLLODION  VARNISH. 

Alcohol 4  ounces 

Pyroxaline 30  to  40  grains 

Sulphuric  ether 4  ounces 


TRANSPARENCIES,  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM.        125 

When,  after  shaking,  the  cotton  is  dissolved,  filter  and  flow 
the  plain  collodion  over  the  dry  transparency;  then  dry, 
cover  with  matt  and  a  crystal  cover  glass,  and  bind  with  black 
binding  strips. 

Transparencies  for  window  and  door  decoration  should  be 
made  on  plates  somewhat  larger  than  the  negative,  so  that  a 
suitable  margin  may  surround  the  image.  To  do  this,  cut  a 
mask  with  rectangular  or  other  opening  out  of  the  thin  red 
enamelled  paper.  For  an  8x10  transparency  from  a  6-Jx8|-  nega- 
tive, take  a  piece  of  the  mask  paper  9x11  with  two  sides  cut  to 
right  angles ;  make  a  line  with  pencil  and  ruler  1  £  inches  from 
two  sides ;  from  the  side  line  measure  5J  inches,  and  from  the 
cross  line  measure  Y|-  inches  ;  cut  on  these  lines  with  a  sharp 
knife  through  the  paper  laid  on  glass  or  zinc,  and  remove  the 
blank  ;  make  a  x  mark  on  left  upper  corner,  to  denote  register 
corner,  place  this  mask  in  a  10x12  deep  printing-frame  ;  let 
it  register  close  to  the  left-hand  upper  corner,  lay  the  nega- 
tive film  side  up  and  under  the  mask  ;  adjust  the  negative  so 
as  to  show  in  proper  position  through  the  opening ;  over  this 
place  a  Carbutt  A  transparency  plate  8x10,  letting  it  register 
in  the  same  corner  as  the  mask ;  lay  over  a  pad  of  black  Canton 
flannel  or  felt ;  close  the  printing-frame ;  expose  to  the  lamp  or 
gaslight  ten  to  fifteen  seconds  or  more,  according  to  degree  of 
density  of  negative.  Develop  as  directed  for  lantern-slides, 
and  in  every  other  respect  proceed  the  same. 

The  tone,  both  of  lantern  and  large  transparencies,  can  be 
varied  from  a  warm  brown  to  a  velvety  black.  Increased  ex- 
posure and  weaker  developer  (adding  water)  with  more  brom- 
ide gives  warm  brown  tones.  Short  exposure  and  stronger 
(undiluted)  developer  gives  dark  tones. 


LESSON   XIX. 
LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

IT  has  been  said  by  those  engaged  in  the  instruction  of 
youth,  that  they  often  find  it  far  more  difficult  to  eradicate 
from  the  mind  of  a  pupil  the  errors  of  previous  training,  than 
to  impart  and  render  permanent  such  knowledge  as  is  re- 
quired. A  false  start  on  the  road  to  knowledge  may  soon  lead 
to  discouragement,  and,  finally,  to  overwhelming  disaster.  And 
this  is  just  as  likely  to  occur  with  older  as  well  as  with  young 
students  in  the  technical  science  and  art  of  photography.  Few, 
if  any,  students,  in  any  department  of  art  have  attained  a  promi- 
nent position  in  his  or  her  profession  without  beginning  with 
the  rudiments  and  thoroughly  mastering  the  first  principles. 

First  lessons  may  seem  uninteresting,  and,  to  many 
appear  unnecessary — a  waste  of  time  and  material.  But,  if 
neglected,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  far  more  time  and 
greater  expense  will  be  demanded  for  correction  of  the  mis- 
take, besides  the  worry  and  regret  which  is  sure  to  come  with 
the  conviction  that  the  beginning  has  been  too  hurried  and  its 
details  too  lightly  passed  over.  I)o  not  expect  to  at  once  pro- 
duce results  equal  to  those  of  workers  who  have  grown  gray  in 
the  same  field  of  labor,  and  if  you  do  have  such  expectations, 
do  not  be  discouraged  by  a  few  failures. 

It  is  well  to  begin  with  a  fixed  determination  that  quality 
should  be  the  first  and  most  important,  and  quantity  a  sec- 
ondary or  unthought-of  factor.  A  good  picture  of  a  single 
tree,  shrub  or  even  leaf,  a  small  picture  of  a  corner  in  the  gar- 
den, a  field  or  bit  of  water,  is  far  more  satisfactory,  instructive 
and  valuable  than  a  so-called  fair  picture,  however  broad  the 
space  shown  may  be.  Do  not  try  to  photograph  everything 
you  see ;  select  your  subject  after  consideration,  execute  your 


LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY.  127 

work   with   deliberate   care,    and    you   may   afterward   take 
pleasure  in  exhibiting  the  results  to  your  friends. 

First  secure  good  apparatus.  Do  not  define  the  word  good 
as  here  used  to  necessarily  mean  high  priced  ;  very  fine  work  is 
often  done  with  comparatively  cheap  tools.  Safety  of  expen- 
diture is  best  secured  by  intrusting  orders  to  a  well-known  and 
reliable  firm.  Otherwise,  purchases  of  apparatus  should  be 
made  under  the  counsel  or  by  the  advice  of  some  competent  per- 
son, who  has  been  made  acquainted  with  the  requirements  and 
conditions  of  the  buyer.  Good,  cheap  apparatus  may  be  found 
if  properly  sought  for.  But  a  great  deal  of  apparatus  is  sold 
which  is  dear  at  any  price,  having  less  real  value  than  the  raw 
material  from  which  it  has  been  constructed. 

After  determining  to  procure  an  outfit,  begin  study  for  its 
use.  Select  subjects  and  study  them  from  various  points  of 
view,  and  under  different  lights  of  morning,  noon,  or  later  in  the 
day.  Observe  the  effect  under  various  conditions  of  illumina 
tion.  Some  of  the  finest  photographs  of  American  landscapes 
have  been  made  under  an  obscured  or  partially  clouded  sky 
just  before  the  morning  sun  appeared  above  the  horizon.  The 
light  reflected  from  such  a  sky  is  soft  and  yet  brilliant,  while 
the  air  usually  has  less  motion  than  at  any  other  time  of  day, 
and  the  dewy  sparkle  of  the  foliage  is  found  only  in  the  early 
hours  of  the  day. 

In  the  broad  expanse  of  field  and  detached  woodland,  the 
brighter  light  of  later  hours  is  often  most  desirable  on  account 
of  the  well-defined  shadows  which  serve  to  break  up  the 
monotony  and  give  brilliancy  to  such  scenes.  A  herd  of  cattle, 
or  a  flock  of  sheep — which  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  land- 
scape pictures — are  less  likely  to  be  in  motion,  and  are  oftener 
found  in  picturesque  groups  in  the  early  morning.  ~No  land- 
scape of  any  considerable  breadth  should  be  photographed 
without  the  introduction  of  animals  or  familiar  figures. 

If  animal  life  is  represented  in  the  picture,  do  not  place  it  in 
the  immediate  foreground,  unless  it  is  to  appear  the  important 
feature  of  the  scene.  Whether  the  figures  used  are  biped  or 
quadruped,  they  should  be  placed  at  such  a  distance  as  will 
prevent  their  blocking  out  other  important  objects,  or  giving 
the  appearance  of  crowding. 


128  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Many  beautiful  landscape  pictures  may  be  secured  in  the 
late  afternoon  hours,  even  up  to  within  a  short  time  of  the 
sun's  disappearance  below  the  horizon.  This  is  an  especially 
favorable  time  of  day  for  fine  cloud  effects.  In  scenes  made 
up  of  large  masses  of  foliage,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  give 
considerably  longer  exposure.  This  increase  of  exposure  is 
very  important  in  heavily  wooded,  mountainous  districts.  The 
absorption  of  actinic  force  and  the  low  power  of  the  reflected 
green  rays  are  such  that  considerable  care  is  necessary  for 
producing  fine  work  under  such  conditions. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  setting  up  the  camera  for  field 
work.  In  most  instances  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  camera 
horizontal  and  level,  and  any  desired  change  in  the  boundaries 
of  the  picture  may  be  made  by  a  proper  use  of  the  sliding  front 
or  swinging  back  of  the  instrument.  For  more  or  less  sky  or 
foreground,  lower  or  elevate  the  sliding  front  or  lens  board  of 
the  box,  and,  for  side  changes,  utilize  the  wide  swing-back. 
This  last-named  motion  is  very  important  when  a  long  stretch 
of  shore,  river  or  street  view  is  under  treatment.  By  swinging 
the  end  of  the  ground-glass  focusing  screen,  showing  the  near 
objects  back  or  further  from  the  lens,  and  the  end  showing  the 
distant  objects  nearer  to  the  lens,  much  finer  rendering  of  de- 
tails is  secured. 

When  the  body  of  the  camera  is  much  tipped  up  or  down,  the 
result  is  likely  to  be  greatly  distorted  and  give  a  false  character 
to  the  picture.  It  is  seldom  advisable  to  photograph  landscape 
scenes  from  the  shadow  side.  The  shadow,  unrelieved  by  il- 
luminated portions,  produces  a  sombre  effect  in  the  work. 

The  proper  rendering  of  distant  views  is  best  secured  in 
dear,  bright  weather.  Even  a  slight  veil  of  fog  or  smoke  is 
quite  sufficient  to  prevent  good  results,  under  otherwise  most 
favorable  conditions.  By  clear  weather,  a  cloudless  sky  is  not 
necessarily  meant,  but  rather  such  conditions  as  show  the  air 
to  be  free  from  smoke  or  fog,  which  give  to  distant  objects  a 
dim  or  hazy  appearance.  A  sky  partially  obscured  by  thin, 
light,  fleecy  clouds,  reflects  an  excellent  light  for  fine  landscape 
work.  The  pleasant  weather  immediately  after  a  heavy  rain 
is  also  very  favorable.  At  such  times  the  floating  particles 


LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY.  129 

have  been  precipitated  or  washed  from  the  air,  and  the  dust 
with  which  foliage  has  become  coated  in  dry  weather  no  longer 
absorbs  the  light,  or  prevents  reflection  from  smooth  surfaces. 

When  photographing  a  scene  including  any  considerable  ex- 
panse of  water,  choose  some  point  of  view  from  which  the 
surface  of  the  water  does  not  present  a  broad,  brilliant  sheet  of 
unbroken  white.  This  is  sometimes  difficult  if  there  is  neither 
a  fresh  breeze  nor  a  flowing  current ;  and  if  either  of  these 
conditions  exist,  the  picture  is  apt  to  be  unsatisfactory  unless 
made  by  instantaneous  exposure,  and  such  short  exposures 
often  result  in  hard  or  inharmonious  prints,  when  considerable 
expanse  of  woodland  or  heavy  foliage  is  included. 

A  field  of  waving  grain,  or  the  long,  majestic  swing  of  tall 
forest  trees  in  a  heavy  gale  of  wind,  are  beautiful  objects  to 
look  upon,  but  are  as  yet  beyond  the  reach  of  photographic 
illustration,  because  the  light  at  such  times  is  usually  too  weak 
for  the  rapid  exposure  required  for  satisfactory  results  with 
moving  objects. 

Beginners,  and  in  fact  old  workers,  are  apt  to  commit  errors 
in  time  of  exposures  in  the  open  air.  This  is  not  mainly  due 
from  lack  of  ability  to  judge  of  the  amount  of  illumination, 
but  rather  from  disregard  of  the  color  of  the  light.  During 
long  periods  of  dry  weather  the  air  becomes  filled  with 
particles  of  floating  matter,  which  gives  the  light  a  yellow, 
non-actinic  tone,  requiring  much  longer  exposures  in  the 
camera. 

It  is  advisable  to  keep  full  notes  of  all  work  done  in  the 
field,  as  such  records  often  prove  valuable  in  after-work  of  the 
same  class.  Field  books  for  such  records  may  be  had  from 
most  dealers  in  photographic  materials.  Plate-makers  and 
chemical  manufacturers  are  many  times  blamed  for  faulty  re- 
sults which  are  due  to  lack  of  judgment,  or  its  proper  exercise 
when  the  materials  are  used. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  light  from  reaching 
the  inside  of  the  plate-holder  or  camera  box,  except  such  as 
passes  through  the  lens,  when  the  exposure  is  made.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  light  under  an  open  sky  is  much 
stronger  than  it  is  inside  a  room,  and  a  small  leak  which 


130  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

would  be  scarcely  noticeable  in  the  latter,  may  be,  in  the  for- 
mer, sufficient  to  illuminate  the  entire  inside  of  the  camera- 
box  or  plate-holder.  A  cloth  or  opaque  cover  is  advisable 
for  shading  the  camera  during  exposure  in  the  field.  Some 
have  recommended  enveloping  the  entire  camera-box  in  a 
shield  of  some  light  opaque  material,  made  up  in  the  form 
of  a  bag  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  drawing  and  replacing 
the  slide  without  removing  or  opening  the  bag. 

Every  record  of  field  work  should  state  the  focus  of  the  lens 
used  and  the  exact  diameter  of  the  stop  or  diaphragm.  To 

state  that  you  used  for  certain  results  Mr.  S 's  lens  with 

No.  3  stop,  really  conveys  no  information  to  the  listener,  unless 
he  is  familiar  with  the  lens.  But  when  you  say  I  used  Mr. 

S 's  eight-inch  focus  lens  with  one-half-inch  diaphragm, 

your  listener  can  at  once  understand  the  conditions  under 
which  the  picture  described  was  made. 

The  development  of  a  landscape  plate  should,  theoretically, 
not  be  different  from  that  of  other  work,  but  when  we  con- 
sider the  variety  of  influences  bearing  upon  the  work,  among 
which  are  principally  the  varying  conditions  of  light,  it  will 
readily  be  understood  that  a  different  procedure  must  be 
adopted. 

It  may  be  taken,  as  a  rule,  that  for  timed  landscape  work 
no  better  plate  can  be  found  in  the  American  market  than  our 
favorite,  the  Carbutt  B,  with  which  we  have  become  familiar, 
and  the  fine  qualities  of  which  we  have  had  ample  opportunity 
to  observe.  Time  of  exposure  depends,  in  landscape  photog- 
raphy, as  well  as  in  every  other  branch  of  the  art,  upon  the 
degree  of  sensitiveness  of  the  plate,  the  quality  of  light,  the 
time  of  day,  and  the  color  of  the  object.  Thus,  for  instance,  will 
dark-green,  wooded  scenery  require  a  much  longer  time  than  a 
view  on  the  lake  shore  or  ocean  beach  ;  a  white  marble  palace 
or  a  white  frame  cottage  much  less  than  a  brick  or  brown- 
stone-front  house. 

The  results  of  the  practicing  class,  1886  and  '87,  of  the  C.  S.  P., 
encourage  us  to  continue,  for  that  class  of  work,  with  the 
Chautauqua  developer,  composed  as  follows  : 

A.  Bromide  of  ammonium 2  drams 

Water 8  ounces. 


LANDSCAPE    PHOTOaKAPHY.  131 

B.  Aqua  ammonia 1  ounce 

Water 7  ounces. 

C.  Pyrogallic  acid 1  dram 

Water. ...    12  ounces 

Nitric  acid 5  minims. 

For  properly-timed  exposures  take  of 

A 40  minims 

B 20  minims 

C Bounce 

Water 2  ounces. 

For  over-exposures  restrain  the  action  by  adding  to  each 
ounce  of  the  mixed  developer  from  three  to  five  minims  of  A, 
and  for  under-exposures  accelerated  with  a  few  drops  of  B,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  use  it  excessively,  for  then  green  fog  will 
invariably  result. 

For  instantaneous  exposures,  when  but  rarely  the  proper 
time  can  be  approximately  estimated,  the  mode  of  operating 
requires  modification. 

We  return  here  to  the  original  developer,  as  described  in 
Lesson  Y. 

When,  on  account  of  weak  light,  or  extremely  rapid  speed 
of  the  shutter,  under-exposure  may  reasonably  be  suspected, 
a  good  method  is  to  bathe  the  plate  in  a  diluted  alkali  solution 
before  proceeding  with  the  development. 

The  alkali  solution,  No.  23  of  Lesson  Y,  may  be  mixed 
with  three  volumes  of  water.  After  the  plate  has  soaked  in 
this  for  two  or  three  minutes,  it  is  removed,  washed  and  placed 
in  diluted  developer  of  the  normal  composition.  The  strength 
of  the  developer  may  be  increased  as  the  process  goes  on,  until 
a  proper  amount  of  density  and  detail  is  obtained. 

For  instantaneous  work,  the  following  formula  has  found 
much  favor  among  the  students  of  the  corresponding  class : 

a.  Water 12  ounces 

Pyrogallol 1  ounce 

Gran,  sulphite  of  soda 2  ounces 

Bromide  potassium 80  grains 

Citric  acid 60  grains 

b.  Water 12  ounces 

Gran,  sulphite  of  soda 2  ounces 

Carbonate  of  potash 3  ounces 


132  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

To  make  the  developer,  take  3  drains  of  each  a  and  b  to  4 
ounces  of  water. 

In  our  opinion,  the  finest  results  can  be  effected  by  merely 
modifying  the  developer.  When  a  plate  shows  signs  of  under- 
exposure, the  normal  developer  must  be  at  once  removed  and 
a  quantity  of  pure  water  poured  into  the  tray,  in  which  the 
plate  remains  while  the  operator  is  mixing  a  new  developer  to 
suit  the  peculiar  case. 

All  authorities,  and  the  most  successful  practitioners  advise 
the  employment  of  a  weak  developer,  in  cases  of  under-exposure, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operation.  Often  it  becomes 
necessary  to  change  the  developer  several  times  in  the  course 
of  one  development,  each  solution  being  prepared  to  suit  the 
exact  state  of  the  plate  in  which  the  previous  one  left  it.  Old 
developers — that  is,  those  which  have  been  used  once  or  twice — 
are  very  serviceable  for  starting  the  action  on  an  over-timed 
plate. 

As  the  process  progresses,  it  will  be  seen  what  treatment  is 
necessary,  and  a  fresh  developer,  which  is  rather  weak  in  alkali, 
perhaps,  will  be  used  in  place  of  the  old  one.  A  weak  developer, 
if  used  to  the  end,  will  yield  but  a  feeble  negative ;  it  must  be 
strengthened  as  the  development  continues.  Of  course,  it  re- 
quires a  much  longer  time  to  complete  development  when  a 
weak  developer  is  employed  and  the  process  is  stopped,  from 
time  to  time,  to  prepare  new  and  slightly  stronger  solutions ; 
but  the  result  is  reasonably  sure.  With  the  proper  amount  of 
time  and  patience,  a  fair  printing-negative  can  be  produced  by 
this  method  of  procedure  from  a  plate  that  was  apparently 
over-exposed. 

Never  force  an  under-timed  negative  by  increasing  the 
amount  of  alkali  in  the  developer;  it  can  only  result  in  failure. 
A  developer  which  is  very  strong  in  soda  or  potash  fre- 
quently causes  a  plate  to  frill,  besides  yielding  a  hard  and 
glassy  negative.  If  too  much  ammonia  is  used,  the  result  is 
green  fog.  Forcing  an  under-timed  plate  invariably  results  in 
a  foggy  negative.  The  temperature,  too,  is  an  important  con- 
dition to  be  observed  when  preparing  a  developer.  In  summer 
and  warm  weather  considerably  less  alkali  is  needed  than  in 
colder  weather. 


LANDSCAPE    PHOTOGRAPHY. 


133 


The  drop-shutter — which  is  an  indispensable  instrument  for 
instantaneous  exposures — explains  itself  by  the  simple  mode  of 
construction  and  easy  way  of  attachment  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

A  more  complicated  arrangement  is  found  in  the  Prosch 
«  Duplex." 


PROSCH  DUPLEX. 


SCOVILL'S 
UNIVERSAL  SAFETY  SHUTTER. 


LESSON    XX. 
STEREOSCOPIC    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

THIS  class  of  photographic  work,  so  far  as  the  making  of  the 
negative  is  concerned,  is  the  same  in  all  its  details  as  the 
negative -making  already  described. 

The  only  difference  in  apparatus  is  found  in  the  use  of  two 
lenses,  in  all  respects  exactly  alike,  and  placing  in  the  camera, 
exactly  in  the  centre,  a  partition  of  such  length  and  width  as  to 
keep  the  images  thrown  by  the  lenses  from  interfering  the  one 
with  the  other.  The  usual  5x8  camera  is  well  suited  for  this 
style  of  work ;  better  yet,  so  far  as  economy  is  concerned,  is 
the  size  known  as  4rx(v. 


The  cut  illustrates  fully  the  style  of  camera  required  for 
this  work ;  in  it  may  be  seen  the  central  division  and  the  two 
lenses. 

It  is  self-evident  that,  by  the  use  of  this  camera,  two  nega- 
tives are  made  of  the  same  view  at  the  same  time,  one  differing 


STEREOSCOPIC   PHOTOGRAPHY.  .        135 

from  the  other  sufficiently  to  give  the  relief  needed  when  the 
print  is  made,  mounted  and  viewed  through  the  instrument 
known  as  the  stereoscope. 

The  difference  in  the  two  pictures  is  well  illustrated  by 
holding  a  book  directly  in  front  of  the  left  eye,  at  the  same 
time  closing  the  right  eye.  By  thus  placing  the  book,  the 
back  only  will  be  seen  by  the  left  eye ;  now  open  the  right 
eye,  upon  doing  which  the  whole  of  the  right  side  of  the  book 
will  be  seen,  thus  relief  or  solidity  is  given  to  the  object. 

Nothing  need  be  here  written  as  to  choice  of  subject,  direc- 
tion of  light,  development,  or  any  of  the  manipulations  already 
given,  for  the  reason,  as  first  stated,  that  all  are  the  same. 

After  printing,  we  meet  with  the  important  part  of  this 
work  in  the  mounting  on  card-board.  Of  this  the  best  size  is 
4x7.  When  you  are  ready  to  mount  the  pictures,  before 
cutting,  turn  each  one  over  and  mark  the  one  that  is  at  your 
right  hand  with  an  L,  for  left,  and  the  other  with  an  R,  for 
right,  for  when  mounted  on  the  card  the  one  that  is  to  the 
right,  as  printed,  is  to  be  placed  to  the  left  on  the  card ;  keep 
each  pair  together,  otherwise  you  will  have  different  shades 
of  toning  on  one  card. 

Before  cutting  out  you  should  have  a  piece  of  glass  prepared 
to  trim  by,  to  measure  2f  inches  wide  and  3f  inches  high ; 
some  workers  make  it  3  inches  wide.  As  a  rule,  the  tirst- 
named  width  is  the  best.  Some  people  have  difficulty  in 
viewing  the  pictures  when  too  widely  separated.  This  piece 
of  glass  may  be  cut  on  top  at  a  right  angle  to  the  sides,  or  may 
be  rounded,  as  suits  the  fancy,  but  it  must  be  smooth  along  the 
edges  to  render  the  cutting-out  clean ;  it  may  be  had  of  the 
dealer  if  you  do  not  choose  to  bother  with  the  making. 

The  trimming  may  be  done  with  the  Robinson  Trimmer 
before  described,  or  with  a  knife  that  has  a  rounding  point, 
and  that  is  perfectly  smooth  and  absolutely  free  from  any 
roughness  on  the  edge,  otherwise  it  will  tear  and  make  ragged 
the  edges  of  the  print. 

Place  upon  a  sheet  of  glass  the  print  to  be  cut ;  upon  the 
print  place  the  glass  pattern  by  which  the  print  is  to  be 
trimmed,  hold  the  pattern  firmly  and  pass  the  knife  closely 


136  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

along  the  sides  of  the  pattern  with  a  steady  but  quick  move- 
ment. 

In  placing  the  pattern,  be  careful  to  have  the  base-line  the 
same  in  both  pictures,  and  use  on  one  side  or  the  other  the 
same  object,  so  that  each  may  contain  exactly  the  same  view. 
This,  with  a  little  practice  and  care,  can  easily  be  done. 

Yiewed  in  the  stereoscope,  the  picture,  if  properly  mounted, 
will  be  most  charming ;  the  distance,  quite  perfect. 

There  are  views  without  end,  anywhere  and  everywhere, 
that  are  suited  to  this  sort  of  work — little  bits,  wooded  lanes, 
forest  paths,  waterfalls,  brooks  over-hung  with  trees — that  pos- 
sess little  charm  in  a  single  view,  but  which  are  just  suited  for 
this  style  of  picture. 

Always  avoid  having  the  negative  very  intense ;  avoid  pure 
whites  in  the  print,  for  the  effect  will  be  snowy ;  plenty  of 
detail  (full  exposure) ;  even  if  the  print  seems  dark,  the  stereo- 
scope will  bring  it  all  out ;  while  if  "  hard,"  as  we  term  it  (black 
and  white),  the  effect  is  not  good. 

In  this  style  of  picture,  have,  if  possible,  something  prom- 
inent in  the  fore-ground.  From  this  the  stereoscopic  effect  is 
plainly  seen;  a  bush,  a  log,  in  fact  any  object  so  placed, 
seems  to  lift  the  whole  picture  into  relief. 


LESSON  XXI. 


LIGHT  AND  LENSES. 


LIGHT  is  deflected  from  its  straight  course  when  passing 
through  transparent  media.  If  a  stick  is  dipped  into  water, 
it  appears  to  be  bent  out  of  its  known  straightness.  A  ray  of 
light  entering  glass  is  bent,  and  the  bending  varies  with  the 
density  of  the  medium  which  it  enters.  "Water  bends  or  re- 
fracts more  powerfully  than  air,  glass  more  than  water,  and 
different  qualities  of  glass,  varying  in  density,  refract  light 
with  different  power. 

If  a  light  ray  passes  through  a  pane  of  glass,  it  is"  bent 
from  the  perpendicular  when  entering,  and  towards  it  when 
emerging. 


.Refraction  takes  place  at  the  surface  of  the  transparent 
medium,  where  the  ray  enters,  but  it  does  not  bend  when 
passing  perpendicularly  to  the  flat  surface. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  shown  that  a  ray  of  sunlight  is  not 
homogeneous,  but  that  it  consists  of  several  colored  rays 
united,  or  intermingled,  which  can  be  demonstrated  by  throw- 
ing a  pencil  of  sunlight  upon  an  angle  of  a  "prism."  An 
oblong  image  is  then  formed  and  may  be  received  upon  a 
screen.  The  light  passes  the  prism  not  in  its  undivided  state 


138 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


it  is  broken  up  into  its  primary,  prismatic  colors,  and  each  of 
these  has  its  own  separate  degree  of  bending  tendency  or  re- 
frangibility. 


Violet. 


Jndigo. 


Differently-colored  rays  refract  unequally.  Red  rays  emerg- 
ing from  the  prism  form  an  angle  with  the  vision;  they 
diverge.  Yiolet  rays  are  more  deflected  from  their  original 
than  the  red,  and  are  called  most  refrangible  ;  the  red  are  the 
least  so.  Green  rays  are  more  refrangible  than  red,  and  less 
than  violet,  because  spectrum  green  is  situated  between  red 
and  violet. 

In  ordinary  photography  it  would  be  quite  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  the  most  powerful  luminous  light  acted  moit  strongly 
upon  sensitive  plates,  but  if  the  light  is  at  all  yellowish,  how- 
ever bright  it  may  be,  its  chemical  force  or  actinic  power  will 
be  but  very  small.  In  this  way  we  explain  the  superiority  of 
the  morning  sun  over  that  of  the  afternoon,  or  the  want  of 
chemical  action  when  the  setting  sun  has  sunk  behind  a  bank 
of  golden  clouds. 

The  elementary  rays  of  the  spectrum  can  be  reunited  into 
white  light.  If  the  sun  spectrum,  emerging  from  a  prism 
passes  through  a  glass  lens,  and  is  then  projected  upon  a 
ground-glass  or  white  screen,  the  single  rays  will  combine  to 
make  white  light. 

The  deflecting  power  acts  upon  the  surface  of  bodies. 
While  the  light  ray  bends  on  entering  and  leaving  the  trans- 
parent body,  it  continues  in  a  straight  line  when  in  its 
medium ;  hence,  it  is  evident  that  by  modifying  the  surface 
of  refractors,  the  rays  of  light  may  be  diverted  at  pleasure. 

Two  prisms,  placed  base  to  base  cause  rays,  parallel  before 
entering,  to  meet  in  a  point,  and  conversely,  prisms  placed 


LIGHT    AND    LENSES. 


139 


edge  to  edge,  to  divert  them.  These  phenomena  are  observed 
upon  curved  as  well  as  upon  plane  surface.  Lenses,  that  is, 
glasses  ground  of  a  curvilinear  form,  show  the  same  refractive 
power. 


Lenses  constructed  for  the  purpose  either  of  concentrating 
or  scattering  rays  of  light,  are,  in  general,  made  of  glass,  and  are 
ground  with  spherical  surfaces ;  the  axis  of  the  lens  being  the 
line  joining  the  centres  of  the  spheres,  and,  therefore,  a  line 
with  respect  to  which  the  lens  is  symmetrical.  Regarding  the 
curves  in  their  combination,  we  distinguish  lenses  which  are 
called :  bi-convex,  plano-convex,  concavo-convex,  or,  more  fre- 
quently, "  meniscus,"  concavo-plane,  and  double-concave.  The 
first  three  of  these  are  thicker  in  the  middle  than  at  the  edge, 
and  are  called  " converging  glasses"  because  they  cause  pen- 
cils of  light  that  are  refracted  through  them  to  converge  more 
than  they  did  before ;  the  others  are  thicker  at  the  edge  than 
in  the  middle,  and  are  called  " diverging  lenses"  because  they 
diverge  rays  of  light  when  being  refracted  through  them. 

The  rays  of  light  proceeding  through  a  converging  lens  from 


an  illuminated  object,  cross  each  other  when  emerging,  and 
the  image  formed  is  necessarily  inverted  ;  thus  rays  transvers- 


14:0  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

ing  centre  or  axis  of  the  lens  pursue  a  course  either  coincident 
with  or  parallel  to  the  original. 

When  an  object  is  placed  at  some  distance  in  front  of  a  lens, 
an  image  is  formed  smaller  than  the  object,  but  if  the  object  is 
advanced  nearer  to  the  lens  the  image  increases  in  size,  the 
focus  at  the  same  time  receding  to  a  greater  distance  from  the 
lens.  A  lens  of  short  focus,  placed  at  a  given  distance  from  an 
object,  forms  a  small  image,  the  rays  of  light  being  then  strongly 
refracted.  The  image  becomes  larger  when  the  lens  is  brought 
nearer,  but  the  lens  will  be  "  strained  "  when  going  beyond  a 
certain  point,  and  distortion  or  misdrawing  of  the  picture  will 
result.  Therefore,  long-focus  lenses  are  constructed  to  obtain 
large  images.  Lenses  for  taking  large  photographs  have  usually 
a  considerable  diameter,  but  it  must  be  understood  that  the  size 
of  the  lens  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  size  of  the 
image.  With  long-focus  lenses,  the  aperture  is  increased  to 
admit  more  light. 

A  ray  of  light  passing  through  a  lens  is  analyzed  into  its 
prismatic  colors,  and  will  give  on  the  ground-glass  screen  an 
image  with  colored  fringes.  This  defect  of  lenses  is  called 
chromatic  aberration.  To  remedy  this,  media  of  different  den- 
sities are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  lenses,  so  that 
different  refractive  power  will  establish  a  balance,  by  which 
practically  correct  work  can  be  done.  Such  corrected  lenses 
are  called  achromatic — meaning,  without  color. 

Achromatism  is  the  first  necessity  in  any  and  all  photographic 
lenses.  A  single  non  corrected  glass  lens  possesses  achromatic 
and  spherical  aberration.  This  second  disturbing  force  is  caused 
by  dirTering  refraction  of  differently-colored  rays  falling  upon 
various  portions  of  the  lens  surface.  The  rays  falling  pn^the 
lens  near  its  edge  are  bent  more  suddenly  than  those  that  pass 
tUrough  it  near  the  centre,  so  that  each  portion  of  the  lens  will 
bring  the  ray  to  a  focus  at  different  distances.  To  remedy 
this,  the  curvature  of  the  lens  is  modified ;  the  form  showing 
the  greatest  amount  of  this  defect — the  double-concave,  i.  e., 
convex  or  rounded  on  both  sides — is  but  rarely  used  in  photog- 
raphy, the  meniscus  form,  convex  on  one  side  and  hollow  on 
the  other,  is 'much  preferred. 


LIGHT    AND    LENSES.  14:1 

To  meet  the  chromatic  or  color  aberration,  and  still  further 
counteract  spherical  aberration,  lenses  for  photographers  are  in 
reality  built  up  of  two,  and  in  some  cases  of  three,  single  lenses, 
of  different  degrees  of  refractive  power  and  quality  of  glass, 
cut  in  carefully-calculated  curves,  to  correct  or  achromatize  the 
instrument.  If  the  lens  is  a  doublet,  like  the  rectilinear,  or 
portrait,  each  component  part  is  constructed  in  this  way.  Not 
only  the  complete  instrument  is  thus  achromatized,  but  also 
each  main  component. 

The  practical  result  of  working  with  non-corrected  lenses 
will  be  that  the  focus  is  not  where  it  appears  to  be.  In  such 
lenses  there  are  really  two  foci,  the  visual  and  the  actinic  or 
chemical  focus.  The  extent  of  such  difference  is  ascertained 
by  experiment  whenever  the  fault  exists.  Our  modern  photo- 
graphic lenses  are,  however,  so  constructed  that  both  foci  in- 
variably coincide. 

The  image  given  by  a  lens  is  not  a  plane,  but  tends  more  or 
less  to  a  shape  like i  the  section  of  a  hollow  sphere.  To  get  it 
as  flat  as  possible,  or  to  approximate  in  section  a  straight  line, 
is  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  optician.  With  a  view  to  this, 
the  proper  kind  of  glass  is  selected,  and  the  lenses  ground  ac- 
cording to  elaborate  calculations,  without  which  another  evil, 
known  as  astigmatism,  may  be  introduced,  by  which  the  defi- 
nition towards  the  edge  is  materially  injured,  bending  the  lines 
of  an  originally  square  or  right-angular  object  inwardly  or  out- 
wardly. 

Spherical  aberration  is  also  overcome,  to  a  great  extent,  by 
placing  "a  diaphragm  or  stop  in  front  of  the  lens.  Oblique  and 
central  rays  can,  by  passing  through  it,  be  brought  approxi- 
mately in  focus  on  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
lens. 

The  diaphragm  has  a  further  purpose,  in  that  it  allows  the 
focus  of  a"  distant  object  and  one  nearer  to  the  lens  to  be 
brought  towards  one  plane.  The  nearer  the  object,  from  which 
light  proceeds,  is  to  the  lens,  the  longer  will  be  the  focus. 

It  will  be  observed  that  by  placing  the  diaphragm  either  in 
front  or  back  of  the  lens,  the  effects  will  be  equal,  and  also 
that  on  the  aperture  of  the  diaphragm  the  brightness  of  the 


14:2  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

image  will  depend.  Hence  the  smaller  it  is,  the  less  light  is 
admitted,  and  the  time  of  exposure  must  be  increased.  In 
either  position  of  the  diaphragm  distortion  may  occur ;  in  the 
one  case  of  being  in  front,  the  lines  forming  the  square  will  be 
turned  inwards,  and  be  reversed  when  the  diaphragm  is  placed 
on  the  back  of  the  lens.  But  by  placing  a  lens  on  either  side 
of  it,  the  distortion  may  be  entirely  obviated.  Upon  this  prin- 
ciple doublet  lenses,  with  central  stops,  are  constructed.  When 
very  small  diaphragms  or  stops  are  used,  say  of  an  aperture 
equal  to  the  fortieth  part  of  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  allow- 
ing a  distance  of  four  feet  for  every  inch  of  focal  length, 
everything  beyond  that  distance  will  be  pictorially  sharp.  If 
the  lens  of  a  camera,  producing  pictures  of  4x5  inches,  having 
a  focus  of  six  inches,  and  a  small  diaphragm  is  then  used,  the 
depth  of  pictorial  delineation  is  such  that  everything  beyond 
twenty-four  feet  from  the  camera  will  be  well  defined,  when 
an  object  at  that  distance  is  sharply  focused.  From  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  shorter  the  focus  of  the  lens  the  greater 
will  be  the  pictorial  depth. 

The  compound  achromatic  meniscus  lens  is  the  form  gener- 
ally used  for  landscape  work.  It  is  constructed  of  a  bi-convex 
lens  of  crown  glass,  and  a  bi-concave  of  flint  glass,  the  contact 
surfaces  being  of  equal  radius  are  joined  with  a  cement,  gen- 
erally Canada  balsam.  To  this  class  of  lenses  belong  the 
"  Waterbury  series,"  an  instrument  of  the  highest  order  for 
landscape  work.  In  it  the  diaphragm  is  placed  in  front,  al- 
lowing to  pass  those  rays  only  by  which  a  perfectly  sharp  pic- 
ture can  be  secured. 

Some  opticians  construct  single  lenses  of  flint  glass  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  density  or  refractive  power,  establishing 
achromatism  by  that  means,  while  others  obtain  the  same  effect 
by  the  use  of  crown  and  flint  glass  of  special  composition. 
These  instruments  are  doublets,  and  are  formed  by  a  symmetri- 
cal pair  of  achromatic  lenses,  the  concave  surfaces  of  which 
face  each  other.  The  diaphragm  is  placed  centrally  between 
the  two.  They  work  sharply  with  an  aperture  equaling  about 
one-seventh  or  one-eighth  of  the  focal  length,  and  are  well 
adapted  for  the  photographing  of  groups,  single  portraits,  land- 


LIGHT    AND    LENSES. 


143 


scapes  and  reproductions.     The  Wale  "  Universal  "  belongs  to 
this  class. 


By  making  the  lenses  much  thicker  and  giving  them,  also, 
shorter  radii  of  curvature,  and  placing  them  closer  to  each 
other,  a  very  wide  angle  of  view  (from  90  to  110  degs.)  is  ob- 
tained. Wide-angle  lenses  consist  of  a  symmetrical  compound, 
each  achromatic  lens  of  which  is  composed  of  a  plano-convex 
crown,  placed  in  contact  with  a  bi-convex  flint,  the  concavity 
of  the  side  of  which  next  to  the  crown  glass  being  only  very 
slight. 

The  Morrison  Wide-angle  Lens  consists  of  an  achromatic 
meniscus  as  the  "front,  and  a  single  meniscus  as  the  back  lens ; 
the  front  one  being  over-corrected  to  an  extent  sufficient  to 
counter-balance  the  non-correction  for  achromatism  of  the  back 
lens.  It  includes  an  angle  of  great  width. 


Wide-angle  lenses  are  mainly  used  for  interior  views. 

Of  portrait  lenses  it  is  required  that  they  transmit  the  greatest 


144  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

possible  amount  of  light,  so  that  by  a  short  exposure  a  detailed 
negative  can  be  made ;  and  they  should  give  extreme  sharp- 
ness with  a  large  opening.  The  relation  existing  between 
the  working  aperture  and  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  is  termed 
angular  aperture,  and  it  is  essential  that  it  be  very  great  in  a 


good  portrait  lens.  Professor  Petzval  discovered  the  means  for 
establishing  these  conditions,  and  his  lens  consists  of  a  plano- 
convex (or  nearly  so)  form,  with  the  convex  side  near  the 
object  to  be  taken.  The  inner  or  contact  surfaces  of  the  con- 
stituents are  not  of  the  same  radius  of  curvature,  and,  besides, 
are  separated  from  each  other  to  a  slight  extent.  This 
produces  negative  spherical  aberration,  or  aberration  of  an 
opposite  nature  to  the  positive  aberration,  which  produces 
the  effect  of  lengthening  the  oblique  rays  and  thus  flattening 
the  field  of  delineation. 

Newer  portrait  lenses  are  principally  constructed  upon  the 
Petzval  plan. 

Several  opticians,  among  them  Mr.  Morrison,  have  lately 
constructed  lenses  with  a  back  combination  differing  from  that 
described  above ;  the  negative  aberration,  necessary  for  flatten- 
ing the  field,  is  obtained  by  the  non-concentricity  of  the  con- 
tact surface,  by  which  a  meniscus  of  air  is  always  interposed 
between  them.  Unless  the  two  back  lenses  are  kept  screwed 
closely  together,  a  sharp  picture  cannot  be  obtained.  A  separa- 
tion of  the  lenses  introduces  a  degree  of  aberration  inimical  to 
sharp  definition. 


LIGHT    AND    LENSES. 


145 


In  choosing  a  photographic  lens,  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
required  must  be  kept  in  view.  A  portrait  lens  has  properties 
which  are  not  essential  for  landscape  work,  and  which  even 
might  prove  detrimental. 

Several  differently-constructed  lenses  are  now  made  which 
answer  the  requirements  for  all  photographic  work. 


LESSON    XXII. 
PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. 

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY  is  the  art  of  making  enlarged  images 
of  microscopical  images  by  photography. 

Micro-photographs,  on  the  contrary,  are  microscopical  photo- 
graphs, or  reduced  images,  of  large  pictures  or  objects,  and 
have  little  value,  as  a  rule,  excepting  as  curiosities. 

In  the  production  of  photo-micrographs,  the  object  to  be 
photographed  is  always  illuminated  by  transmitted  light.  Solar, 
electric,  magnesium,  or  ordinary  gas  or  lamp-light  may  be 
employed,  and  are  of  value  in  the  order  stated,  sun-light  being 
best. 

Inasmuch  as  the  actinic  power  of  the  light  employed  is 
weakened,  directly  as  the  image  of  a  given  object  is  magnified, 
only  the  more  brilliant  illumination  will  be  suitable  for  the 
higher  amplifications  of  the  microscope. 

Microscopical  enlargements  are  usually  stated  in  diameters, 
that  is  to  say :  If  the  image  of  an  object  one-hundredth  of 
an  inch  square  is  made  to  appear  one  inch  in  diameter,  it  is 
said  to  be  magnified  one  hundred  times  (XlOO)  only,  notwith- 
standing the  apparent  superficial  area  has  been  increased  ten 
thousand  times.  This  is  for  convenience  and  brevity  of  ex- 
pression in  writing. 

Microscopical  objects  for  photographical  enlargement  are 
invariably  of  the  utmost  thinness,  and  pictures  therefrom  pos- 
sess little  or  no  perspective  ;  and,  while  the  image  is  expressed 
in  outline,  this  does  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  exist- 
ence of  very  great  detail. 

The  chief  obstacle  lies  in  this  :  That  objects  to  be  pictured 
must  be  generally  translucent,  in  order  to  secure  illumination 
by  transmitted  light,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  details  of 


PHOTOMICROGRAPHY.  14:7 

structure  are  of  only  varying  degrees  of  translucency,  and  so 
the  contrasts  in  the  projected  image  are  weak. 

The  essentials  of  the  apparatus  are  : 

(a)  Arrangement  for  securing  the  light. 
(5)  Means  of  concentrating  the  last. 

(<?)  Mechanism  for  adjustment  of  the  image  forming  com- 
bination. 

The  principles  of  photo-micrography  are  best  conveyed  by 
first  employing  the  most  simple  apparatus  and  being  content 
with  moderate  magnification.  Such  an  apparatus  is  provided 
in  the  ordinary  magic  lantern  attached  to  the  compound 
microscope. 

The  source  of  light  here  selected  is  that  from  a  single-wick 
kerosene  burner. 

The  flame  must  be  placed  edge-wise  in  the  optical  axis  of 
the  apparatus.  This  is  important,  in  order  that  the  full  in- 
tensity of  the  light  may  be  secured  without  interference  of 
the  feebly-illumined  outer  portions. 

The  concave  mirror,  if  supplied  with  the  lantern,  must  be 
removed,  inasmuch  as  the  rays  reflected  from  such  surface 
would  not  be  focussed  coincidently  with  the  rays  directly  im- 
pinging upon  the  condensing  lenses. 

A  thin,  blackened,  metal  plate  with  a  half-inch  circular 
perforation  should  be  placed  between  the  edge  of  the  flame 
and  the  condenser,  and  close  to  the  former,  for  the  same  reason 
as  indicated  in  second  paragraph  preceding. 

The  rays  from  the  flame  are  collected  by  the  lantern  con- 
densers, and  thereby  concentrated  upon  the  object  upon  the 
stage  of  the  microscope. 

The  centre  of  the  lamp-flame  must  be  in  the  exact  optical 
axis  of  the  condensers  and  of  the  microscope  body;  other- 
wise, the  object  will  be  obliquely  lighted. 

The  heat-rays,  which  are  now  concentrated  upon  the  ob- 
ject, to  its  detriment,  should  be  intercepted  by  placing  a 
vessel  with  plate-glass  sides,  containing  a  dilute  solution  of 
ammonio-sulphate  of  copper,  in  the  path  of  the  light  and  near 
the  stage  of  the  microscope.  This  improves  the  definition  by 
intercepting  certain  illuminating  rays  which  possess  the  actinic 


148  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

power.  The  blue  cell  may  be  removed  while  focussing,  if 
found  necessary,  in  consequence  of  its  cutting  off  too  com- 
pletely the  visual  rays. 

If  the  microscope  be  provided  with  an  achromatic  sub- 
stage  condenser,  its  use  will  improve  the  illumination.  A  half- 
inch  objective  may  be  employed  as  a  condenser  with  excellent 
results. 

In  selecting  objects  for  photo-micrography,  secure  such  as 
present  sharp  outlines  and  clear  detail.  Minute  insects,  or  por- 
tions of  larger  ones,  diatoms,  and  some  animal  and  vegetable 
histological  slides  will  be  preferred.  Potato-starch  makes  an 
excellent  object,  and  may  be  prepared  as  follows :  Scrape  the 
freshly-cut  surface  of  a  raw  potato,  and  convey  the  merest 
speck  of  the  fine  scrapings  to  the  centre  of  a  glass  slip.  Add 
a  single  drop  of  clean  water  and  drop  on  a  thin-cover  glass. 
The  glasses  must  be  scrupulously  clean.  The  cover  will  adhere 
sufficiently  without  cementing  and  will  not  slip  when  the 
whole  is  placed  upon  the  vertically-positioned  stage  of  the 
microscope.  The  starch  granules  present  concentric  markings* 
which  afford  a  good  test  for  the  defining  power  of  the  higher- 
power  lenses  (such  as  the  one-fifth  inch).  • 

Any  good  microscope  objective  may  be  employed  for 
photographical  purposes.  Begin  with  the  one-inch  lens  and  a 
small  insect — a  flea,  for  example — mounted  as  a  translucent 
object.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  lenses  specially-corrected 
for  photography.  The  objectives  of  our  first-class  opticians 
almost  invariably  give  good  photographic  results.  Do  not 
waste  time  with  inferior,  poorly-corrected  French  lenses. 

The  image  formed  by  the  objective  should  be  received 
directly  upon  the  focussing-glass  of  the  camera.  Be  sure  that 
the  connection  between  the  camera  and  the  microscope  is  abso- 
lutely light-tight.  This  is  best  effected  by  tying  a  velvet  tube 
around  the  microscope  body. 

Remove  the  eye-piece ;  it  will  amplify  the  image  without 
increasing  the  definition.  Aim  to  secure  a  sharp  negative, 
with  good  contrasts,  and  of  medium  size.  The  half-plate  is 

*  Practical  Microscopy.  (New  York  :  William  Wood  &  Co.)  By  Maurice 
N.  Miller,  M.D.  Describes  the  method  of  preparing  objects  like  the 
above,  besides  animal  tissues. 

I 


PHOTOMICROGRAPHY.  149 

sufficiently  large,  and  the  quarter  will  indeed  be  very  satisfac- 
tory in  most  instances.  Enlargements  upon  bromide  paper  will 
be  much  more  satisfactory  than  the  results  of  attempts  to  am- 
plify directly. 

The  size  of  the  image  upon  the  focussing-screen  depends  upon 
(a)  the  focus  of  the  objective ;  (b)  the  distance  between  the  last 
and  the  focussing-plate.  As  has  before  been  stated,  the  illumin- 
ation will  decrease  according  as  the  camera-bellows  is  drawn 
out.  Commence  with  a  medium  distance — say  twelve  inches. 

If  the  amplification  be  considerable  and  the  contrasts 
feeble,  the  image  connot  well  be  focussed  upon  the  ground- 
glass.  Substitute  a  piece  of  plate-glass,  having  first  thinly 
smeared  one  side  with  tallow.  Focussing  should  invariably  be 
done  with  a  magnifying  lens. 

The  light  must  be  adjusted  for  centrality.  This  is  done 
once  for  all  if  the  lamp  can  be  fixed  in  the  lantern. 

Exposing  must  not  be  done  by  drawing  the  slide  of  the 
plate-holder,  as  the  adjustments  are  thus  disturbed.  A  piece 
of  blackened  card-board,  interposed  between  the  lantern-con- 
denser and  the  microscope-stage,  should  be  removed  for  expos- 
ing. This  avoids  all  danger  of  jarring  during  the  action. 

The  period  of  exposure  can  only  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment. Construct  a  table  of  exposures  from  actual  trials, 
noting  (a)  the  objective  used ;  (5)  the  character  of  the  object 
photographed — as  to  translucency,  color,  etc. ;  (<?)  whether  with 
or  without  the  secondary  —  sub-stage  —  condenser;  (d)  the 
length  of  the  camera,  or  distance  between  the  microscope 
objective  and  the  sensitive  plate. 

The  definition  must  be  perfected  by  attention  to  the 
stage  diaphragm  and  the  position  of  the  secondary  condenser. 
The  rule  regarding  the  employment  of  the  diaphragm  is :  The 
higher  the  power  employed,  the  smaller  the  opening  used. 
The  illumination  must  be  perfected  by  racking  the  sub-stage 
condenser  until  the  best  effect  is  secured.  If  the  picture 
develops  unevenly* — quickly  in  the  centre  and  slowly  around 

*  This  may  result  if  the  inside  of  the  tube  (body)  happens  to  be  left — 
by  the  negligence  of  the  maker — bright,  so  as  to  reflect  the  peripheral 
rays  upon  the  sensitive  film  ;  and  it  may  be  corrected  by  introducing  a 
tube  made  of  blackened  paper. 


150 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


this — the  field  has  been  improperly  illuminated,  and  the  con- 
denser must  be  racked  to  and  fro  until  the  light  appears  of 
equal  intensity  in  the  different  parts  of  the  field. 

Microscope  objectives,  capable  of  adjustment  for  thick- 
nesses of  cover-glass,  are  invaluable  for  purposes  of  photo- 
micrography, and  the  adjustment  does  not  differ  from  the  same 
when  the  lens  is  employed  for  ordinary  visual  work. 

Immersion  objectives  may  be  used  as  well  with  the 
microscope  body  in  the  horizontal  position. 


LESSON    XXIII. 
PHOTOGRAPHING   BY   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT. 

DARK  days,  cloudy  weather,  a  desire  frequently,  even  the 
necessity,  to  obtain  photographs  of  but  sparingly-illuminated 
objects  or  of  localities  in  total  darknesss,  have  led  to  extensive 
experiments  with  a  variety  of  artificial-light  sources.  Among  the 
many  methods  proposed  as  substitutes  for  day-light  are  the  elec- 
tric arc  and  incandescent  lights,  light  resulting  from  the  burning 
of  magnesium,  the  calcium,  oxy-hydrogen,  Bengal  pyrotechnic 
white  fire,  the  ordinary  gas,  and  petroleum  flames.  Wherever 
long  exposures  are  required,  and  the  cost  of  installing  an  elec- 
tric system  is  of  but  secondary  consideration,  the  arc-light  has 
held  its  own.  For  quick  and  instantaneous  work,  for  the 
amateur  and  #  scientist,  magnesium  has  gained  an  immense 
popularity  over  all  other  artificial  lights,  because  of  its  cheap, 
ness,  its  simplicity,  and  the  brilliancy  and  highly-actinic  quality 
of  its  light.  Early  and  very  successful  experiments  with 
magnesium  wire  or  ribbon  had  shown  the  enormous  light- 
force  emanating  from  this  burning  metal,  but  owing  to  its 
then  very  high  price,  the  photographer  was  debarred  from 
using  it  in  daily  practice ;  still,  it  was  occasionally  resorted  to 
in  urgent  cases. 

After  it  had  been  learned  how  to  reduce  the  metal  from  its 
natural  combinations  by  electrolytic  processes,  its  high  price 
suddenly  fell,  and  it  became  available  to  the  photographic 
public.  The  actinic  force  of  the  magnesium  flame  is  increased 
by  burning  the  metal  with  the  aid  of  oxygen  directly.  To  do 
this  efficiently,  magnesium,  reduced  to  powder  or  fine  filings, 
was  mixed  by  many  experimenters  with  purveyors  of  oxygen, 
more  or  less  explosive  and  otherwise  dangerous,  but  realizing 
the  desire  of  obtaining  a  more  perfect  light. 


152  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

Most  of  the  substances  furnishing  oxygen,  being  poisonous 
and  giving  rise  to  the  evolution  of  dangerous  and  obnoxious 
gases,  necessarily  raise  just  objections  against  their  use. 
Others  again  do  not  contribute  to  perfect  combustion  of  the 
whole  metal,  and  reduce  the  light-force;  while  gun-cotton, 
used  as  a  fusee,  imparts  a  decidedly  yellow  color  to  the  flame, 
making  it  non-actinic. 

The  instructor  of  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Photography 
prepared  a  magnesium  flash-light  compound,  and  demonstrated 
its  practical  use  with  perfect  success.  It  is  absolutely  safe  in 
every  respect,  and  of  enormous  luminous  force.  Divided  into 
charges  of  about  20  and  40  grains,  respectively,  it  is  pre- 
pared and  sold  in  form  of  little  card-board  cartridges,  and 
ignited  by  a  burning  match  through  a  fusee  reaching  the 
centre  of  the  cartridge. 


Scovill's  Magnesium  Cartridges. 

The  compound  is  consumed  completely  within  the  thirtieth 
part  of  a  second.  For  single  portraits,  groups  of  from  five  to 
eight  persons,  or  the  interiors  of  parlors,  library,  etc,  a  single 
cartridge  of  20  grains  furnishes  sufficient  light  at  a  distance  of 
from  twelve  to  twenty-five  feet.  With  a  Wale  Universal  or 
a  Gundlach  Rapid  Rectigraph  of  ten  inches  focal  length,  and 
/^  stop,  or  a  Waterbury  B  with  -f$  diaphragm,  perfect  expos- 
ures are  obtained  with  this  light. 

For  larger  groups,  in  localities  of  more  extended  dimensions, 
or  for  interiors  of  churches,  lecture  and  school-rooms,  the 
quantity  of  the  magnesium  powder  must  be  increased  propor- 
tionately. 


PHOTOGRAPHING    BY    ARTIFICIAL    LIGHT.  153 

To  light  a  portrait  with  taste,  and  to  give  it  roundness  and 
plasticity,  the  magnesium  light  demands  more  care  and  judg- 
ment than  day-light.  One  can  make  a  good  portrait — say  of 
the  size  of  a  cabinet,  with  the  objectives  generally  used  for 
portraits,  by  placing  the  light  at  a  distance  of  from  five  to 
eight  feet  from  the  subject.  The  student  should  remember 
that,  "  the  nearer  to  the  source  of  light,  the  stronger  and 
sharper  will  be  the  shadows  cast"  Hence,  we  must  soften 
the  shadows  by  removing  the  light,  with,  of  course,  a  sacrifice 
of  some  of  its  force.  The  light  being  comparatively  powerful 
at  as  near  a  distance  as  five,  six  or  seven  feet,  we  can  reduce 
its  force,  and  diffuse  it  over  a  large  space,  by  interposing 
between  it  and  the  subject  a  screen  of  white  tissue-paper,  or  a 
thin  fabric  (gauze).  On  account  of  the  close  proximity  of  the 
light,  the  subject  must  be  removed  so  far  from  the  back- 
ground as  to  avoid  shadows  of  the  sitter  to  fall  upon  it.  The 
light,  placed  towards  the  sitter  at  an  angle  of  30  degrees,  must 
be  so  far  removed  from  the  apparatus  as  to  prevent  light  from 
entering  the  lense,  but  not  so  far  as  to  destroy  plastic  effects 
upon  the  subjects.  Strong  shadows  will  occur  with  day-light 
as  well  as  with  the  magnesium  flash,  on  that  side  of  the 
subject  opposite  to  the  light-source,  and  to  counteract  this 
effect,  we  resort  to  the  side-screens  described  in  the  lesson  on 
Portraiture. 

To  find  sharp  focus  in  a  room,  lighted  by  ordinary  gas  or 
petroleum  lamps,  is  sometimes  quite  difficult.  But  the  task 
may  be  facilitated  by  placing  a  burning  candle  or  taper  in 
close  proximity  to  the  sitter's  face,  and  by  then  focussing  on 
the  flame.  In  large  rooms  or  halls,  the  same  method  can  be 
made  available  ;  but  there  it  will  be  better  to  distribute  a  series 
of  lights  over  the  space  desired  sharp  in  the  picture,  and  focus 
on  them. 

Focus  having  been  secured,  the  lens  is  capped,  and  the  slide 
drawn  from  the  plate-holder ;  all  lights  are  then  extinguished, 
the  cap  removed,  and  the  magnesium  cartridge  or  othe» 
preparation  is  ignited.  The  lightning-like  flash  which  follows 
endures  about  one-thirtieth  of  a  second  ;  after  which  the  lens 
is  recapped,  the  slide  inserted,  the  room  relighted,  and  the 
plate  carried  to  the  dark-room  for  development. 


154:  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

The  only  perceptible  product  of  the  burning  of  magnesium 
is  oxyd  of  magnesium,  identical  with  the  well-known  calcined 
magnesia;  it  rises  in  a  white  cloud,  but  is  soon  dispersed. 
Before  the  smoke  has  entirely  been  dissipated,  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  proceed  with  another  exposure.  The  finely-divided 
particles  of  magnesia  suspended  in  the  air  are  apt  to  cause  an 
impression  (fog)  upon  the  plate. 

As  a  developer  for  plates,  exposed  by  the  magnesium  flash- 
light powder,  the  student  is  referred  to  the  formula  appended 
to  Lesson  XIX  on  landscape  photography.  The  precautions 
required  by  all  instantaneous  exposures  should  be  carefully 
observed  in  this  work  as  well. 


LESSON    XXIV. 

EMULSION    MAKING. 

WE  have  necessarily  gone  through  a  variety  of  operations 
in  learning  how  to  make  photographs ;  but  the  basis  of  all  our 
various  productions  on  paper,  glass,  and  other  substances  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  negative  made  upon  a  glass  plate,  coated 
with  a  substance  called  bromide  of  silver  gelatine  emulsion, 
the  preparation  of  which  we  still  have  to  learn. 

It  is  not  the  purpose,  in  this  lesson,  to  give  a  full  account  of 
how  to  prepare  light-sensitive  gelatine  emulsions,  and  how  to 
coat  plates  with  them  to  be  ready  for  the  amateur's  work,  for 
good  and  extended  works  already  exist  on  this  subject  which 
are  at  the  disposal  of  students* ;  it  is  merely  intended  to  show 
what  gelatine  emulsion  is,  and  to  give  an  outline  of  the  opera- 
tions necessary  to  produce  a  light-sensitive  plate,  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word. 

Before  we  enter  into  this  description,  it  may  be  well  to 
mention  that,  previous  to  the  year  1880,  photographers  pre- 
pared their  own  plates,  as  occasion  demanded ;  a  glass  plate, 
coated  with  mediums,  carrying  within  them  metallic  iodides, 
bromides  and  chlorides,  were  subjected  to  the  action  of  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  thus  producing  combinations  of 
iodine,  bromine,  or  chlorine  with  silver,  and  a  light-sensitive- 
ness of  the  film  resting  upon  the  glass  support.  By  exposure 
to  light  and  development,  good  printing  negatives  were  se- 
cured from  these  films.  Starch,  gums,  gelatine,  albumen,  but 
principally  collodion  (a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  alcohol  and 
ether),  were  the  mediums  adopted  to  carry  the  sensitive  salts. 

*  Photography  With  Emulsions,  by  Capt.  Abney ;  and  Dry  Plate  Making 
for  Amateurs,  by  Dr.  Geo.  L.  Sinclair. 


156  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

It  was  then  suggested  to  mix  the  nitrate  of  silver  in  solution 
with  the  bromides,  iodides  or  chlorides  (haloids,  as  they  are 
termed  collectively),  of  alkaline  metals,  mixed  intimately  with 
a  solution  of  gelatine,  so  as  to  keep  the  correspondingly-formed 
silver  haloid  suspended,  in  the  form  of  a  milky  liquid  or 
emulsion. 

To  Dr.  Maddox*  is  due  the  credit  of  having  first  prepared 
a  serviceable  gelatine  emulsion.  The  silver  haloid  which  he 
originally  used  was  the  bromide,  but  later  reseaches,  mainly 
those  of  Victor  Schumann  and  Captain  Abney,  have  proved 
that  the  addition  of  iodide  to  the  bromide  of  silver  increases 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  plate  and  contributes  much  to  perfect- 
ing the  final  result. 

Probably  all  writers  on  modern  photography,  and  scores  of 
practitioners,  have  made  emulsions  successfully.  The  opera- 
tion is  interesting  and  instructive  enough  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  studious  amateur  to  try  his  hand  at  emulsion- 
making. 

For  our  purpose,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  describe  the  making 
of  emulsion,  according  to  one  or  two  formulae  which  have 
given  entire  satisfaction  wherever  they  have  been  adopted. 

A  very  popular  method  is  that  of  Mr.  Henderson's,  as 
modified  by  Chas.  Scolik,  which  was  described  as  follows  in 
the  Photographic  Times : 

The  Henderson  emulsion  is  indeed  excellent,  particularly 
in  the  results,  giving  absolute  clearness,  beautiful  high-lights, 
and  well-defined  shadows.  With  all  these  good  qualities,  it 
shows  a  sensitiveness  of  from  20  to  21  deg.  Warnerke,  which 
is  equal,  therefore,  to  all  commercial  instantaneous  plates. 

We  prepare  our  emulsion  in  the  following  way :  In  a 
Florentine  flask  of  1  litre  capacity  f  we  dissolve  from  3  to  4 
grams  Heinrich's  gelatine  in  150  c.c.m.  of  distilled  water,  at 
a  temperature  of  50  deg.  C.,  and  add  1  gram  crystallized  citric 
acid  (recently  citric  acid  has  been  omitted).  After  perfect 
dissolution,  7  grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonium,  previously 

*  See  Appendix  of  History  of  Photography,  by  W.  Jerome  Harrison,  F.G.S. 

f  We  retain  the  decimal  weights  and  measures  in  order  to  give  the 
formula  without  the  least  deviation  from  the  original. 


EMULSION    MAKING.  157 

reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  is  added,  which  causes  a  violent 
effervescence;  further  add  45  grams  bromide  of  ammonium 
and  8  c.c.m.  of  a  10  per  cent,  iodide  of  potassium  solution,  and 
finally  420  c.c.m.  alcohol  (92  per  cent.)  mixed,  with  18  c.c.m. 
ammonia  (0.91). 

In  another  flask  we  dissolve  60  grams  nitrate  of  silver  in 
300  c.c.m.  of  distilled  water.  The  two  solutions,  prepared  in 
day-light,  must  now  be  removed  to  the  dark  laboratory,  when 
the  silver  solution  is  added  in  small  portions,  and  by  constant 
agitation,  to  the  alcoholic  bromide  solution.  During  the  first 
two  hours  the  mixture  is  frequently  shaken  up,  the  flask 
being  closed  with  a  well  fitting  stopper  to  prevent  the  vola- 
tilization of  the  ammonia  during  the  ripening.  Allow  it  to 
stand  over  night,  and,  on  the  following  morning,  swell 
84  grams  of  Heinrich's  gelatine  in  just  enough  water  to  cover 
it;  strain  off  the  superfluous  water,  melt  the  gelatine,  and  add 
it  to  the  silver  solution,  warmed  to  35  deg.  C.,  mix  well 
together,  and  pour  finally  in  a  flat  porcelain  dish.  When 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  long  time,  the  emulsion,  on  account  of 
the  alcohol,  is  rendered  a  hard  and  tough  mass ;  it  is  better, 
therefore,  to  chill  only  for  two  or  three  hours,  according  to 
the  temperature.  If  too  hard,  it  is  difficult  to  reduce  to  shreds 
or  press  them  into  nodules.  Afterwards  wash  for  three  or 
four  hours  in  from  ten  to  twelve  changes  of  water,  press  out 
the  water  in  a  linen  bag,  and  melt  in  a  beaker  glass,  filter  and 
coat. 

Of  the  highest  importance  in  emulsion-making  is  the  tem- 
perature. In  our  laboratory  we  ripen  emulsion  in  ten  hours, 
at  a  temperature  of  from  25  to  28  deg.  C.  in  summer,  and 
in  winter  by  from  16  to  22  deg.  C.,  in  eighteen  to  twenty- 
three  hours.  Dr.  Stolze  has  correctly  observed  that,  at  a 
temperature  of  less  than  20  deg.  C.,  only  IT  to  18  deg, 
Warnerke  can  be  reached.  With  the  proportions  of  time  and 
temperature  employed  by  us,  20  to  22  sensitometer  numbers 
can  be  easily  obtained. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  alcoholic  emulsions  digested  or 
ripened  at  higher  temperatures,  about  40  or  50  deg.,  will  never 
give  satisfactory  results.  Alcohol  favors  ripening  when  alkali 


158  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

(ammonia)  is  present.  But  at  a  temperature  beyond  25  or  30 
deg.  C.,  a  variety  of  perplexing  difficulties  occur.  It  is  not 
safe  to  attempt  ripening  a  Henderson  emulsion  at  a  tempera- 
ture near  50  deg.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  do  so. 
Granulation  of  the  emulsion,  fog,  feeble  and  flat  negatives  are 
the  results. 

It  is  equally  necessary  and  important  to  consider  the  amount 
of  water  used  for  swelling.  Not  more  than  is  absolutely 
requisite  should  be  taken  up.  Swell  for  fifteen  to  thirty 
minutes,  and  no  longer.  Remove  carefully  all  water  not 
absorbed,  and  add  only  very  small  quantities  at  a  time  to  the 
silver  solution  at  moderate  heat. 

Quick  and  perfect  chilling  is  essential.  This  is  best  done 
by  placing  the  vessel  containing  the  emulsion  upon  ice. 
When  shredding,  the  particles  should  appear  to  be  compact 
and  solid;  if  not  sufficiently  chilled,  the  wash  water  will  froth, 
and  the  emulsion  will  become  soft  and  slippery  in  consequence 
of  having  taken  up  too  much  water.  Such  emulsions  granu- 
late, and  their  sensitiveness  decreases  materially. 

The  same  must  be  said  of  diluted  emulsions.  It  is  erroneous 
to  say  a  diluted  emulsion  retains  the  original  sensitiveness. 
If,  after  washing,  all  superfluous  water  has  been  thoroughly 
removed,  plates  may  be  prepared  with  a  thin  coat.  This  dries 
more  rapidly  and  offers  advantages  in  operating  which  can 
hardly  be  sufficiently  estimated. 

Another  emulsion,  which  is  very  popular  in  America,  is  that 
of  Prof.  Dr.  Joseph  M.  Eder,  and  is  prepared  as  follows : 

Dissolve  in  a  Florentine  flask 

Bromide  of  ammonium 20  grams 

Bromide  of  potassium 24  grams 

Solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  1 :10 5  to  10  c.c.  m. 

And  add,  in  winter, 

Hard  winterthur  gelatine 45  grams 

Heinrich's  gelatine 45  grams 

In  summer, 

Hard  winterthur  gelatine 65  grams 

Heinrich's  gelatine 25  grams 

With  sufficient  water  to  allow  the  gelatine  to  swell. 


EMULSION    MAKING.  159 

Into  another  flask  place 

Nitrate  of  silver  cryst 60  grams 

Distilled  water 550  c.c.m. 

And,  when  thoroughly  dissolved,  add  sufficiently  strong 
ammonia  till  the  brownish  precipitate  formed  is  re-dissolved, 
being  careful  not  to  use  more  ammonia  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Both  of  these  operations  may  be  performed 
in  day-light ;  afterwards  remove  to  the  dark-room.  Both  of 
the  solutions  are  then  heated  to  150  deg.  F.,  and  the  silver 
solution,  in  very  small  portions,  drop  by  drop,  and  by  constant 
agitation,  added  to  the  gelatine,  thus  effecting  a  uniform  and 
very  fine  precipitate  of  the  silver  haloids  formed.  The  silver 
flask  is  rinsed  with  100  c.c.  warm  distilled  water,  and  the 
rinsings  added  to  the  rest. 

The  entire  mixture,  or  emulsion,  is  then  digested  upon  a 
water-bath  of  a  temperature  of  100  deg.  F.,  till  a  small  portion 
of  it,  spread  upon  a  glass  plate,  shows  a  blue  color  when 
viewed  by  the  transmitted  light  of  a  candle-flame. 

The  emulsion,  being  now  complete,  is  poured  into  a  flat  dish 
or  tray,  allowed  to  cool  or  chill,  and  to  stand  for  twenty-four 
hours,  during  which  time  ripening  continues. 

Emulsions  made  by  either  of  the  two-mentioned  formulae 
contain  the  results  of  the  decomposition  of  the  soluble  haloids 
and  the  formation  of  the  insoluble  silver  salts,  i.  0.,  nitrate  of 
ammonia  and  nitrate  of  potassium,  an  excess  of  free  nitrate 
of  silver,  and  the  insoluble  sensitive  silver  haloids.  While 
the  latter  remain,  the  former  soluble  substances  must  be 
removed — that  is,  the  emulsion  requires  washing.  To  do  this 
the  chilled  gelatinous  mass  is  cut  up  into  shreds  by  means  of 
a  horn  or  bone  paper-knife,  or  pressed  into  nodules,  through 
coarse  canvas. 

Swelled  gelatine,  or  the  tremulous  emulsion,  being  soluble 
at  about  80  deg.  F.,  the  operation  of  nodule-pressing  must  be 
performed  under  iced  water.  Shreds  or  nodules  are  then 
washed  for  several  hours  either  in  repeated  changes  of  ice- 
water,  or  in  a  running  stream  of  it,  till  all  soluble  matter  is 
removed. 


160  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

A  very  convenient  method  to  wash  small  quantities  of 
emulsion — about  as  much  as  an  amateur  will  take  in  hand — 
is  to  place  the  shreds  in  an  ordinary  earthenware  tea-pot,  tie  a 
coarse  hair  cloth  over  the  opening,  place  the  lid  upon  it  and 
attach  to  the  spout  a  rubber  hose,  through  which  ice  water  is 
allowed  to  run. 

Washing  completed,  the  emulsion-shreds  are  spread  upon  a 
coarse  canvas,  fastened  to  a  tentacle,  and  all  water  is  allowed 
to  drain,  which  may  take  hours ;  collected  in  a  beaker-glass, 
re-melted  by  moderate  heat,  and  filtered.  To  remove  mechan- 
ical impurities,  and  to  keep  out  coarse  particles  of  silver 
haloids,  filtering  becomes  an  absolute  necessity.  A  variety  of 
ingeniously-devised  filters  for  emulsions  have  been  constructed, 
but  for  our  experiments,  on  a  small  scale,  perfect  filtration 
can  be  effected  by  pressing  the  melted  emulsion  through  a 
clean  piece  of  chamois  leather,  or  by  allowing  it  to  run 
through  flannel  tow.  Of  course,  a  tolerably  high  temperature 
must  be  maintained  in  order  to  keep  the  emulsion  in  liquid 
form.  If  the  emulsion  has  been  kept  for  any  length  of  time 
before  coatin,g  on  the  glass  plates,  an  antiseptic  is  required  to 
keep  it  in  good  condition.  Small  quantities  of  thymol  or  car- 
bolic acid  in  alcohol  do  this  very  well. 

The  glass  plates  to  be  coated  must  be  scrupulously  clean. 
Wash  them  in  a  strong  solution  of  soda,  and,  after  allowing 
them  to  stand  in  diluted  nitric  acid  1:3,  rinse  them  off  well 
and  dry  upon  a  rack. 

Before  coating,  the  plates  must  be  furnished  with  a  substra- 
tum. Gelatine  alone,  or  when  mixed  with  a  trace  of  bichro- 
mate of  potassium,  and  exposed  to  light;  pure  albumen,  or 
albumen  with  a  little  chrome-alum ;  a  thin  solution  of  potas- 
sium water,  glass  in  water,  or  rubbing  the  glass  in  the  same 
solution  till  dry,  have  been  recommended,  and  are  used  with 
success. 

The  coating  and  drying-room  must  be  absolutely  free  from 
dust,  and  be  well  ventilated,  sufficiently  dark,  and  heated  to 
70  or  75  deg.  The  plates  must  remain  in  the  room  long  enough 
to  assume  its  temperature  before  they  are  coated  with  the 
emulsion,  which  is  heated  higher  than  the  temperature,  of  the 


EMULSION    MAKING.  161 

room.  To  coat  plates  of  the  same  size  uniformly,  the  emul- 
sion must  be  measured  out  for  each  individual  plate,  half  an 
ounce  being  enough  for  an  8x10  plate.  If  the  emulsion  refuses 
to  run  smoothly  over  the  plate,  assist  it  with  a  glass  rod. 

After  coating,  the  plates  are  laid  upon  a  cold  marble  slab, 
perfectly  leveled,  and  allowed  to  chill,  after  which  they  can 
be  set  on  edge  for  drying.  This  requires  from  eight  to  ten 
hours. 

Longer  drying  is  likely  to  produce  fog. 

As  exposure  to  ruby  light,  when  extended  for  a  very  long 
tiine,  naturally  affects  the  plates,  they  should  be  dried  in 
an  absolutely  dark  closet,  through  which  a  strong  current 
of  dry  and  cool  air  is  allowed  to  pass,  and  in  which  the  plates 
are  set  up  with  sufficient  space  between  them. 

It  is  never  advisable  to  open  the  drying-closet  before  the 
plates  are  presumed  to  be  perfectly  dry.  The  slightest  change 
of  air  and  temperature  will  have  a  marked  effect  upon  them. 
Dried  gelatine  emulsion  plates  are  best  kept  in  grooved  wooden 
boxes,  well  shellacked  inside  and  out. 


APPENDIX 


ON  THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CHEMICALS  AND 
SUBSTANCES  EMPLOYED  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRACTICE. 


BY    PROF.    CHARLES    EHRMANN, 

Instructor  of  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Photography. 


Acid,  Acetic,  the  acid  of  vinegar,  gets  its  name  from  the 
Latin  word  acetum,  vinegar.  It  is  prepared  from  wine  and 
other  alcoholic  liquids  by  exposure  to  air  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. The  alcohol,  by  oxydation,  is  entirely  changed  in  its 
composition,  and  converted  to  its  acid  derivative.  The  acid  is 
produced  in  large  quantities  by  a  destructive  distillation  of 
hard  wood — oak  or  beach ;  but,  owing  to  a  great  variety  of 
incidental  products  and  impurities,  lengthy  processes  are  re- 
quired to  obtain  it  in  a  pure  state  and  concentrated  form.  It 
is  generally  made  by  distilling  it  from  the  crude  acetate  of 
soda  or  acetate  of  lead. 

Pure  acetic  acid  should  leave  no  residue  after  evaporation, 
and  give  no  precipitate  with  either  the  nitrate  of  silver  or  the 
chloride  of  barium. 

The  acid  of  commerce,  or  when  in  the  most  concentrated 
form,  "glacial  acetic  acid,"  is  employed  in  photography  to 
liquify  gelatine ;  as  a  restrainer,  principally  in  the  wet-collodion 
process ;  to  eliminate  iron  from  the  paper  support  of  gelatine 
emulsion  films ;  and  for  various  other  purposes,  especially  when 
in  connection  with  the  bases. 

Acid,  Boric  or  B oracle,  occurs  naturally  in  the  waters  of 
volcanic  lagoons.  It  crystallizes  in  transparent,  colorless  plates, 


164  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

and  dissolves  in  25  parts  of  water.  It  is  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful restrainers  in  alkaline  development. 

Acid,  Chromic,  consists  of  oxygen  and  a  metallic  element, 
"  chromium,"  named  thus  on  account  of  the  beautiful  colors  of 
its  many  salts. 

Chromic  acid,  in  its  pure  state,  is  used  in  Obernetter's  pro- 
cess to  reproduce  negatives  from  negatives  (see  The  American 
Annual  of  Photography,  Yols.  I  and  II) ;  and,  in  combina- 
tion with  potassium  or  ammonium,  in  the  photo-mechanical 
printing  methods,  where  it  acts  as  a  powerful  oxydizer  upon 
organic  bodies. 

It  crystallizes  in  fine,  red  needles,  which  are  deliquescent 
and  very  soluble ;  is  sensitive  to  light,  and  is  decomposed  by  it 
with  the  liberation  of  oxygen. 

Acid,  Citric,  is  found  in  the  juice  of  limes,  lemons  and  several 
other  fruits,  from  which  it  is  extracted  by  combining  the  acid 
with  carbonate  of  lime  and  liberating  the  acid  from  the  citrate 
formed  with  sulphuric  acid,  by  evaporation  and  crystallization. 

Citric  acid  is  a  white,  crystalline  body,  permanent  in  dry  air, 
but  attracting  moisture  in  dampness.  It  is  easily  soluble  in  water, 
also  in  alcohol.  The  aqueous  solution  will  get  mouldy  after 
a  short  time.  If  adulterated  with  tartaric  acid,  which  it  very 
much  resembles,  a  sumptuous  addition  of  carbonate  of  potash 
to  its  solution  will  cause  a  white  precipitate  of  bi-tartrate  of 
potassium,  or  cream  of  tartar. 

Citric  acid,  like  other  organic  bodies,  rich  in  carbon,  has  the 
property  to  reduce  the  oxides  of  precious  metals. 

It  is  used  in  combination  with  the  pyrogallol  developer;  for 
the  preparation  of  durable  silvered  albumen  paper ;  to  clear 
bromide  prints  from  adhering  iron  ;  and,  in  combination  with 
bases,  for  various  other  purposes. 

Acid,  Gallic,  from  which  pyrogallol  is  most  frequently  made, 
is  a  true  acid,  is  soluble  in  100  parts  of  cold  water,  and  easily 
soluble  in  alcohol.  Its  action  as  a  developer  is  not  as  powerful 
as  its  derivative,  pyrogallol,  but  has  been  frequently  recom- 
mended to  intensify  feeble  negatives  when  combined  with 
acetic  acid  and  a  trace  of  nitrate  of  silver.  Kecently  it  has 
been  proposed  as  a  slow-acting  developer  for  the  production  of 
black  and  white  negatives,  with  very  promising  results. 


APPENDIX.  165 

Acid,  Hydrochloric,  commonly  called  muriatic  acid,  is  com- 
posed of  two  elementary  gases — chlorine  and  hydrogen.  The 
acid  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  common 
salt,  chloride  of  sodium,  and  the  evolved  gas,  when  cooled,  is 
-absorbed  by  water.  In  olden  times,  sea-salt  was  exclusively 
employed  for  the  purpose,  hence  the  name,  "  muriatic,"  from 
the  Latin  muria,  brine  or  salt  water. 

Hydrocholoric  acid,  when  pure,  is  colorless,  of  a  pungent, 
suffocating  odor.  It  leaves  no  residue  on  evaporation,  and 
should  give  no  precipitate  or  opacity  with  dilute  solution  of 
chloride  of  barium.  Its  use  in  photography  is  very  extensive. 
As  a  solvent  for  metallic  bodies,  in  combination  with  nitric 
acid  to  prepare  chloride  of  gold  and  chloride  of  platinum ;  to 
precipitate  chloride  of  silver  from  waste  solution  or  wash 
waters ;  as  an  addition  to  the  alum  clearing-bath ;  and  when- 
ever a  free  mineral  acid  is  required,  the  nature  of  which  is  a 
matter  of  indifference,  since  it  is  not  liable  to  alter  bodies  by 
oxidation,  as  nitric  acid  will  do,  nor  to  form  insoluble  com. 
pounds,  as  occurs  with  sulphuric  acid.  For  the  cleaning  of  old 
bottles,  funnels,  or  other  glass  and  earthen-ware,  as  trays  or 
evaporating  dishes,  it  is  an  invaluable  medium.  It  is  not  a 
bleaching  agent,  but  decomposes  in  sunlight,  with  the  separa- 
tion of  free  chlorine. 

Acid,  Nitric,  is  composed  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  In  very 
small  quantities,  it  can  be  formed  directly  by  passing  a  series 
of  electric  sparks  through  a  mixture  of  7  volumes  of  oxygen 
and  3  volumes  of  nitrogen.  Bound  to  bases,  the  acid  is  found 
naturally  in  enormous  quantities,  as  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  potas- 
sium, Chili  or  cubic  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  sodium,  etc.  It  is 
manufactured,  on  a  large  scale,  by  allowing  sulphuric  acid  to 
act  upon  any  of  these  nitrates. 

The  pure,  concentrated  acid  does  not  attack  copper,  lead,  tin 
or  silver,  but  when  mixed  with  water,  or  when  containing 
nitrous  acid,  or  still  lower  oxides  of  nitrogen,  a  dissolution  of 
the  metal  takes  place  speedily,  and  red  vapors  of  nitrous 
acid  are  evolved.  The  metal  is  thus  oxidized,  the  oxide  com- 
bining with  the  nitric  acid  in  excess,  and  forming  the  corre- 
sponding nitrate.  Nearly  all  the  nitrates  are  soluble,  neutral, 
and  not  capable  of  forming  double  salts. 


166  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Nitric  acid  is  extensively  employed  in  photography.  "With 
it  we  prepare  the  nitrate  of  silver,  copper,  lead,  etc. ;  we  use  it 
to  make  gun-cotton,  or  pyroxyline,  when  it  is  combined  with 
sulphuric  acid ;  with  it  we  clean  glass  plates  preparatory  to 
coating  them  with  sensitive  substances ;  for  the  preservation  of 
pyrogallic  solution ;  in  •  various  developers  ;  and  as  natural 
nitrates  in  many  other  operations. 

One  volume  of  nitric  acid  and  two  volumes  of  hydrochloric 
acid  constitute  the  nitro-muriatic  acid,  formerly  known  as 
Aqua  Megia,  capable  of  dissolving  gold,  as  when  we  prepare 
chloride  of  gold.  The  process  taking  place  is  probably  due  to 
a  liberation  of  chlorine  gas,  which,  in  statu  nascenti,  combines 
with  gold,  while  nitrous  acid  and  water  are  simultaneously 
formed. 

Arid,  Nitrous,  constitutes  principally  the  red  fumes  arising 
when  metals  are  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid.  Combined 
with  bases,  the  acid  forms  nitrites.  Nitrite  of  silver  is  formed 
sometimes  when  nitrate  is  being  fused.  Of  other  nitrites, 
none  need  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  photographic 
operations  except  the  potassium  salt,  which  is  used  for  pre- 
paring ready- sensitized  paper. 

Acid,  Oxalic.  Combined  with  potassium,  this  acid  is  found 
naturally  in  a  little  plant,  growing  in  shady  forests,  and  known 
by  the  name  of  wood-sorrel  (pxalis  acetosella).  It  is  com- 
bined there  in  excess  of  the  potassium,  as  a  bin-oxalate.  This 
acid,  having  found  extensive  employment  in  chemistry  and 
the  mechanical  arts,  and  its  natural  source  being  but  extremely 
limited,  chemists  have  resorted  to  prepare  it  by  artificial  means 
and  produce  it  by  treating  sugar,  starch,  gum,  rice,  and  other 
substances  with  nitric  acid.  At  present,  it  is  largely  made  by 
heating  saw-dust  with  caustic  potash  to  400  deg.  F.,  and  a  sub- 
sequent treatment  of  the  resulting  mass  with  carbonate  of  lime 
and  sulphuric  acid. 

It  is  a  colorless,  crystalline  substance,  resembling  Epsom 
salts  in  its  appearance,  but  is  very  poisonous.  Care  should, 
therefore,  be  taken  whenever  it  is  handled  by  inexperienced 
persons. 

In  its  pure  state,  it  is  used  to  acidify  the  oxalate  of  potas- 


APPENDIX.  167 

slum  solution,  with  which  the  ferrous-oxalate  developer  is 
prepared ;  it  is  added  to  the  alum  clearing-bath ;  pyrogallic 
acid  solutions  are  renewed  with  it ;  and  stains  on  the  fingers, 
caused  by  pyro-developer,  may  be  removed  by  it;  and  it  is 
very  valuable  for  cleaning  brass  or  copper  implements. 

Combined  with  potassium,  and  eventually  with  iron,  it  is  a 
constituent  of  the  oxalate  developer,  used  largely  by  all  pho- 
tographers not  English  or  American. 

Acid,  Pyrogallic,  or  pyrogallol,  a  substance  which  is  em- 
ployed in  enormous  quantities  as  a  developing  agent,  is,  properly 
speaking,  not  an  acid,  because  it  shows  no  acid  reactions,  not- 
withstanding its  capability  to  form  feeble  combinations  with 
some  bases,  a  property  common  to  several  of  the  indifferently- 
acting  organic  compounds.  For  this  reason,  the  name  of  pyro- 
gallol has  been  substituted  for  pyrogallic  acid. 

It  is  prepared  by  subjecting  gallic  acid,  or  other  substances, 
to  dry  distillation  or  sublimation,  but  can  be  made  also  by  sub- 
jecting finely-pulverized  Aleppo  galls  to  a  similar  process 
Pyrogallol  is  a  white,  voluminous  and  crystalline  substance, 
easily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether,  and  very  poisonous ; 
two  grains  of  it  will  kill  a  dog. 

Owing  to  a  property,  which  it  also  shares  with  many  other 
organic  bodies,  to  reduce  precious  rnetals,  like  silver,  from  their 
combinations,  to  de-oxidize  them,  it  is  a  powerful  developing 
agent.  With  the  wet-collodion  process  it  is  used  with  citric 
acid  ;  with  dry  gelatine-emulsion  plates,  whose  development  is 
the  result  of  true  chemical  action,  alkalines  are  added  to  its 
solution,  to  make  it  active. 

Up  to  a  certain  point  the  addition  of  ammonia,  soda  or 
potash  accelerates ;  beyond  that  it  results  in  gray,  red  or  green 
fog,  according  to  the  kind  of  alkali  taken,  and  reduces  even 
the  silver  of  the  emulsion  so  far  as  to  give  the  plate  a  perfect 
metallic  lustre.  To  prevent  pyrogallol  in  solution  from  de- 
composition, we  add  to  it  sulphites,  sulphurous,  or  other  acids. 
A  pure,  aqueous  solution  turns  black  speedily  by  exposure  to 
air  and  light.  Ferric  salts  turn  it  yellow ;  ferrous  salts,  bluish- 
black  (ink);  chlorine  also  blackens  it,  but  iodine  has  no  in- 
fluence. 


168  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Acid,  Salicylic,  is  a  white,  crystalline,  voluminous  powder;  is 
obtained  from  the  bark  of  certain  species  of  the  willow-tree. 
It  has  been  used  to  preserve  gelatine  emulsion,  and,  for  a  like 
purpose,  it  is  added  to  pyrogallol  solutions. 

Acid,  Sulphuric,  composed  of  sulphur  and  oxygen,  is  made 
by  burning  sulphur  and  oxidizing  the  resultant  vapors  of  sul- 
phurous acid  by  means  of  nitrous  acid.  The  operation  is 
performed  in  a  series  of  lead  chambers  till  the  acid  obtained 
has  gained  sufficient  concentration. 

It  is  a  dense,  oily,  colorless,  inodorous  liquid,  and  strongly 
corrosive,  acting  destructively  upon  organic  tissue. 

Pure  sulphuric  acid  is  used  to  acidify  sulphate  of  iron  solu- 
tion ;  otherwise  not  very  extensively,  excepting  when  com- 
bined with  bases  or  in  the  preparation  of  other  chemicals,  like 
gun-cotton,  etc. 

Acid,  Sulphurous,  a  gas,  is  prepared  by  heating  sulphuric 
acid,  water  and  charcoal,  and  absorbing  it  b}T  water,  of  which 
40  volumes  will  take  up  about  1. 

This  solution  of  the  acid  in  water  is  known  by  the  name  of 
sulphurous  acid  water. 

The  commercial  article  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  with  a 
strong  odor  of  burning  sulphur,  and,  owing  to  its  great  attrac- 
tion for  oxygen,  will  readily  turn  into  sulphuric  acid  when 
exposed  to  the  air. 

Sulphurous  acid  prevents  the  decomposition  of  pyrogallol  in 
solution,  and  is  very  valuable  as  an  agent  to  bleach  pyro- 
stained  negatives. 

Acid,  Tartaric,  occurs  naturally  in  many  kinds  of  fruit,  but 
principally  in  unripe  grapes.  It  is  a  white,  crystalline  solid, 
of  strong  acid  properties,  and,  if  diluted  with  water,  of  very 
agreeable  taste.  It  is  easily  soluble  in  water,  also  in  alcohol. 

Its  photographic  use  is  but  limited,  though*  it  has  been  of 
late  successfully  employed  as  a  restorative  to  spent  ferrous- 
oxalate  developer. 

Albumen  is  a  substance  largely  found  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms.  That  separated  from  the  blood  of  quad- 
rupeds is  occasionally  used ;  much  more  so,  however,  the 
whites  of  birds'  eggs.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  becomes 


APPENDIX.  169 

insoluble  or  coagulates  when  exposed  to  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water.  Heated  at  a  low  temperature,  it  evaporates  to 
a  yellow,  friable  mass,  which  is  again  soluble  in  water. 
Alcohol,  and  some  of  the  metallic  salts,  coagulate  it  also. 
With  nitrate  of  silver,  it  forms  a  white  precipitate,  albuminate 
of  silver,  with  the  property  to  turn  red  in  sunlight. 

Albumen  is  used  for  various  photographic  purposes.  With 
it  substrata  for  sensitive  collodion  or  gelatine  plates  are  formed, 
and  enormous  quantities  are  expended  in  preparing  albumen- 
ized  paper.  In  combination  with  bichromates  it  is  employed 
in  several  photo-mechanical  printing  methods,  and  with  it  are 
made,  to  the  present  day,  the  sharpest  and  most  delicate 
lantern-slides  and  transparencies.  With  sensitized  albumen 
the  first  negatives  were  made  upon  glass,  long  before  collodion 
was  thought  of. 

Alcohol  is  a  product  of  various  fermentations.  When  certain 
vegetable  juices,  containing  sugar  or  starch,  are  exposed  to  a 
moderately  high  temperature,  a  decomposition  takes  place ; 
carbonic  acid  is  discharged,  and  alcohol  is  formed;  it  remains 
in  the  liquid,  however,  and  must  be  separated  from  it  by 
distillation.  It  is  a  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  of  agreeable 
taste  and  odor,  very  inflammable,  burning  with  a  bluish  flame, 
and  mixing  in  all  proportions  with  ether  and  water.  Alcohol 
is  capable  of  dissolving  a  great  many  substances,  hence  its 
extensive  use  as  a  solvent  in  many  photographic  operations. 
It  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes ;  to  dissolve 
pyrogallic  acid  ;  to  prevent  or  arrest  frilling ;  to  extract  water 
from  wet  gelatine  plates,  in  order  to  effect  rapid  drying ;  and, 
in  combination  with  ether,  is  a  solvent  for  gun-cotton. 

Alcohol,  Methylated,  often  mentioned  by  English  authors,  is 
pure  alcohol  mixed  with  wood-spirits.  On  account  of  its  dis- 
agreeable taste  and  odor,  it  is  not  fit  to  be  used  for  the  manu- 
facture or  adulteration  of  alcoholic  beverages,  and,  therefore,  is 
exempt  from  taxation  within  the  British  empire.  When  a 
formula  prescribes  methylated  alcohol,  Americans  use  the 
ordinary  95  deg.  alcohol. 

Alum  is  derived  from  the  metal  aluminium.  Sulphate  of 
aluminia  will  combine  with  the  sulphates  of  potassa,  soda  and 


170  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

ammonia,  forming  cry  stall  izable  double  salts,  the  alums  of 
commerce.  Alum  was  used  in  former  times  to  harden  albu- 
men films  in  the  printing  upon  wood-engravers'  blocks,  but 
with  the  advent  of  the  gelatine  emulsion  processes,  it  entered 
the  laboratories  of  the  photographers,  to  be  there  largely  used. 
The  potassium  alum  is  used  now  to  turn  or  harden  gelatine 
films  before  or  after  fixing.  It  is  also  believed  b}7  many  to 
remove  the  fixing-agent  from  plates  or  paper  prints,  but  this 
has  been  proved  by  diligent  researches  not  to  be  the  case. 

Alum,  Chrome,  is  a  double  salt,  isomorphous  to  alums,  and 
consists  of  the  sulphate  of  oxide  of  chromium  with  the  sul- 
phate of  potassa  or  ammonia.  It  dissolves  in  water  with  a 
violet  color,  and  is  used  with  albumen  or  gelatine  as  a  sub- 
stratum for  gelatine  plates,  or  for  hardening  films  in  aggra- 
vated cases. 

Ammonia^  composed  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  is  an  ex- 
tremely pungent  and  irrespirable  gas;  known  to  photog- 
raphers in  its  aqueous  solution  ;  termed  by  them  aqua  ammonia, 
liquor  ammonia,  or  forti  (stronger)  or  caustic  ammonia.  It  is 
prepared  by  heating  chloride  of  ammonium  in  a  retort  with 
slacked  lime.  The  gas  evolved  is  absorbed  by  water  in  the 
receiver,  which,  when  saturated,  should  show  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.875.  It  must  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  for  when 
in  contact  with  air,  carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia  formed.  Liquor  ammonia  is  used  as  an  addition  to 
the  alkaline  pyrogallic  acid  developer.  Portrait  photographers 
claim  to  be  able  to  obtain  with  it  better  plasticity  and  detail 
than  with  either  potassa  or  soda.  Ammonia  dissolves  chloride 
of  silver,  and  has  been,  therefore,  recommended  as  a  fixing- 
agent  for  prints.  It  is  a  test  to  distinguish  the  silver  haloid 
from  that  of  barium.  After  previous  application  of  bichloride 
of  mercury,  it  is  used  for  intensifying  gelatine  negatives. 
With  it  we  prepare  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver  for  certain 
printing  processes,  and  for  Dr.  Eder's  gelatine  emulsion.  As 
a  fuming  agent  for  silvered  albumen  paper  it  is  invaluable. 
With  freshly-sensitized  paper,  the  ammonia  and  free  nitrate 
of  silver  adhering,  forms  a  better  sensitive  compound  than 
ordinary  chloride  of  silver,  and,  with  washed  or  permanent 


APPENDIX.  171 

paper,  it  acts  as  a  chlorine  absorber,  when  the  reduction  of 
metallic  silver  is  effected  by  light,  and  thus  acts  beneficially  to 
the  printing  process.  . 

Ammonium,  a  hypothetical  metallic  radical,  consists,  like 
the  ammonia,  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  and  is  capable  of 
forming  salts  like  the  oxides  of  metals.  It  has  not  yet  been 
obtained  in  its  pure  state,  the  nearest  approach  to  it  being  an 
amalgam  with  mercury. 

Ammonium  Bichromate,  made  by  neutralizing  chromic  acid 
with  ammonia,  is,  on  account  of  greater  solubility  than  the  cor- 
responding potassium  salt,  which  it  resembles  in  appearance, 
much  preferred  to  it  in  some  of  the  mechanical  printing 
processes. 

Ammonium  Bromide  is  made  by  neutralizing  hydro-brornic 
acid  with  ammonia.  It  is  a  white,  crystallizable  salt,  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  water,  and  is  used  to  restrain  alkaline  develop- 
ment, for  the  sensitizing  of  collodion  and  gelatine  emulsions. 

Ammonium  Carbonate,  a  colorless,  crystalline  salt,  is  made, 
by  sublimation,  from  chalk  and  chloride  of  ammonium.  It  has 
been  used  occasionally  as  an  addition  to  the  developer,  in 
place  of  the  aqua  ammonia,  and,  by  sprinkling  its  powder  over 
the  backs  of  printing-pads,  it  has  been  substituted  for  the 
fuming  of  sensitized  albumen  paper. 

Ammonium  Chloride,  or  sal-ammonia,  is  the  oldest  ammo- 
nium compound  known.  The  ancients  termed  it  sal-ammonia, 
for  it  was  then  prepared  in  the  Syrian  desert,  near  a  temple  of 
Jupiter  Ammon,  and  made  by  subliming  camel's  dung.  It  is 
a  white,  translucent,  fibrous  salt,  of  pungent  taste,  very  soluble 
in  water,  and  is  made  now  by  neutralizing  ammoniacal  gas 
liquor  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  subsequent  rectification.  It  is 
principally  used  for  salting  albumenized  and  plain  paper,  and 
for  the  preparation  of  chloride  of  silver  emulsions,  when  it 
converts  the  nitrate  salt  into  chloride  of  silver. 

Ammonium  Iodide  is  a  coarse,  white,  crystalline  powder. 
It  may  be  made  by  adding  carbonate  of  ammonia  to  iodide  of 
iron,  but  more  easily  by  neutralizing  hydro-iodic  acid  with 
ammonia.  It  is  much  used  for  making  sensitive  collodion,  and 
is  also  added  to  gelatine  emulsions. 


172  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Ammonium  Oxalate  has  recently  been  recommended  for  the 
preparation  of  paper  in  the  platinum  printing  process.  It  is 
made  by  neutralizing  oxalic  acid  with  ammonia. 

Ammonium  Sulphide,  better  known  as  hydrosulphate  of 
ammonia,  is  used  extensively  by  process  workers  to  intensify 
black  and  white  collodion  negatives,  after  Dr.  Eder's  method, 
with  nitrate  of  lead,  or  a  previous  intensification  with  bromide 
of  copper.  It  is  obtained  by  saturating  ammonia  with  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid  in  excess,  when  it  forms  a,  yellow  liquid  of  very 
disagreeable  odor.  Applied  to  the  negative  silver  deposit,  it 
forms  the  permanent  sulphide  of  silver,  and  produces  absolute 
opacity. 

Ammonium  Sulpho-cyanate,  the  rhodan-ammonium  of  the 
Germans,  is  a  compound  of  sulpho-cyanic  acid  and  ammonia ; 
extremely  poisonous;  a  fixing  agent;  and,  in  combination  with 
gold  chloride,  is  used  for  toning  gelatine  and  chloride  of  silver 
prints  (aristotypes). 

,  Arrowroot  is  the  starch  obtained  from  the  roots  of  maran- 
tha  arundinacea,  a  plant  growing  in  southern  climes.  That 
coming  from  Bermuda  and  Florida  is  considered  to  be  the 
best.  It  is  used  for  sizing  plain  printing  paper  and  for  making 
photographers'  paste. 

Asphaltum,  or  the  bitumen  of  Judsea,  is  a  mineral  fossil. 
That  coming  from  Asia  Minor,  owing  to  greater  purity,  is 
preferred  by  photographers.  Asphaltum,  of  which  only  a  part 
is  sensitive  to  light,  is  used  for  copying  negatives  in  line  or 
stipple  upon  zinc  plates,  preparatory  to  etching.  Previously 
the  non-sensitive  part  is  removed  •  by  digesting  the  whole  in 
ether;  the  purified  remnant  is  dissolved  in  benzole  free  from 
water ;  spread  upon  the  plate ;  is  then  exposed  to  light  under 
the  negative.  Asphaltum  prints  are  distinguished  by  superior 
sharpness. 

Bromine^  a  dark  red,  volatile  fluid,  of  penetrating  odor.  In 
its  chemical  properties  it  resembles  chlorine  and  iodine.  All 
the  combinations  with  metallic  radicals  are  of  the  highest 
importance.  It  unites  with  them  very  energetically,  and  is 
able  to  displace  oxygen  from  many  of  its  combinations. 

Bromine,  in   pure  state,  is  occasionally  added  to  positive 


APPENDIX.  173 

collodion  (ferrotypes) ;  was  used  extensively  to  sensitize 
Daguerreotype  plates ;  and  attempts  have  been  made  to 
unite  it  directly  with  silver  for  the  bromide  of  silver  gelatine 
emulsion. 

Cadmium  is  a  salt  resembling  tin  in  appearance  and  zinc  in 
chemical  properties.  Its  iodides  and  bromides  were,  at  one 
time,  used  in  the  wet  collodion  process.  Owing  to  their  tend- 
ency to  thicken,  collodion  process  workers  have  now  abandoned 
them. 

Calcium,  another  metal  of  importance,  occurs  naturally  in 
enormous  deposits,  as  lime-stone,  chalk,  marble,  gypsum,  phos- 
phates, and  fluor  spar.  Its  oxyd — lime — finds  employment  for 
various  chemical  and  manufacturing  purposes.  In  photog- 
raphy, it  is  little  used.  Lime-water,  pure  or  with  sugar,  i& 
sometimes  added  to  alkaline  developers. 

Calcium  Carbonate,  or  chalk,  neutralizes  the  acidity  of  the 
perchloride  of  gold  in  various  printing  methods. 

Calcium  Chloride,  for  its  great  energy  in  attracting  moisture, 
is  used  as  a  preservative  for  dry  plates,  sensitive  paper,  and  as 
an  exsiccator  for  various  purposes.  It  has  also  been  used  in 
collodion,  without  showing,  however,  decided  advantages  over 
other  chlorides. 

Calcium  Hypochlorite,  the  chloride  of  lime  of  commerce,  is 
also  added  to  certain  gold  toning-baths.  It  is  supposed  to  give 
absolutely  black  tones.  More  extensively  we  employ  it  for 
making  the  hypo-chlorites  of  zinc,  sodium  and  potassium,  or 
hypo-eliminators.  It  should  be  employed  only  when  perfectly 
dry,  exhaling  a  strong  odor  of  chlorine. 

Chlorine,  an  elementary  gas,  of  greenish-yellow  color,  irre- 
spirable,  and  of  penetrating  odor,  is  made  by  heating  1  part  of 
peroxide  of  manganese  with  2  parts  of  hydro-chloric  acicL 
The  gas  evolved  is  absorbed  in  cold  water,  and  thus  kept  in 
solution.  It  must  be  kept  in  the  dark,  as,  under  the  influence 
of  light,  hydro-chloric  acid  will  form.  Its  affinity  for  hydro- 
gen is  very  great,  and  is  the  only  body  which  unites  directly 
with  gold  and  platinum.  The  combinations  of  chlorine  with 
other  elements,  excepting  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  are  termed 
chlorides,  and  are  mostly  soluble  in  water.  Those  with  alka- 
line metals  are  used  for  the  preparation  of  chloride  of  silver. 


174  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Collodion  is  a  solution  of  pyroxyline  or  gun-cotton  in  ether- 
alcohol  ;  has  been,  and  is,  to  the  present  day,  employed  as  a 
carrier  of  alkaline  iodides,  bromides  and  chlorides,  with  which 
corresponding  silver  salts  are  formed,  when  brought  in  contact 
with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver. 

Plain  or  normal  collodion  forms  the  substratum  from  which 
American  film  negatives  are  stripped,  and  it  assists,  in  a  similar 
manner,  in  enamelling  prints.  A  modification  (leather  collo- 
dion) contains  a  few  drops  of  castor  oil  to  the  ounce,  and  is 
preferred  for  stripping  films. 

Copper,  in  its  pure,  metallic  state,  is  of  a  rose-red  color,  and 
can  be  obtained  thus  by  electrolytic  processes.  Helio  or  photo- 
gravures are  photographs  etched  upon  copper  plates  with  acids 
or  perchloride  iron.  In  Obernetter's  photo-copper-plate  en- 
gravings, chloride  of  silver,  into  which  the  photographic  silver 
deposit  has  been  converted,  affects,  indirectly,  etching.  Photo- 
engraving blocks  are  multiplied  in  copper  or  electrotyped,  and 
upon  silvered  copper-plates  were  made  the  first  helio-graphic 
pictures,  the  Daguerreotypes. 

The  salts  of  this  metal  have  found  but  limited  application 
in  photographic  work.  Copper  nitrate  or  sulphate  in  the  iron 
developer  gives  high  intensity  to  a  collodion  negative ;  with 
the  bromide  salt,  extra  high  intensity  is  gained  after  develop- 
ing and  fixing,  and  chloride  of  copper  has  been  added  to 
gelatine  emulsions.  Solutions  of  ammonio-sulphate  of  copper 
in  interposed  cells,  are  used  in  photo-micrographic  work. 

Cyanine,  or  chinoline  blue,  is  a  dye-stuff  derived  from  alka- 
loids of  the  Peruvian  bark.  It  is  a  greenish,  crystalline 
powder ;  dissolves  in  alcohol  and  water  with  intense  blue  color. 
Being  the  most  red-sensitive  substance  known,  cyanine  is 
much  used  in  ortho-chromatic  photography. 

The  compound  dye,  azaline,  consists  partly  of  cyanine. 

Eosine,  the  potassium  salt  of  tetra-bromo-fluorescein,  is, 
owing  to  its  yellow  sensitiveness,  also  used  in  orthochromacy. 

Erythrosine  is  extremely  sensitive  for  general  color-effects 
in  reproducing  colored  objects,  but  mainly  for  green,  yellow 
and  orange  ;  is  a  dye  belonging  to  the  group  of  eosines  and  the 
sodium  salt  of  tetra-iodo-fluorescein. 


APPENDIX.  175 

Ether  is  a  very  volatile,  colorless  liquid,  of  agreeable  odor ; 
is  prepared  by  distilling  alcohol  with  sulphuric  acid  and  recti- 
fying the  result  over  slacked  lime.  It  dissolves  fatty  and 
essential  oils,  resins,  alkaloids  and  the  chlorides  of  gold,  plat- 
inum, iron  and  uranium.  With  alcohol,  it  dissolves  gun-cotton, 
resulting  in  collodion. 

Ferric  Salts  are  all  yellow,  red,  or  brown ;  the  ferrous 
green,  or  bluish-green — the  oxalates  making  exception,  ferric- 
oxalate  being  green,  and  the  ferrous  of  yellow  color. 

Ferrous-sulphate  is  used  in  large  quantities  to  develop  wet 
collodion  plates.  Ferrous- sulphate  and  ammonia,  a  more 
stable  salt,  is  oftentimes  substituted  for  it.  In  emulsion-plate 
photography  ferrous-sulphate  is  only  used  for  the  preparation 
of  the  ferrous-oxalate. 

Fluorine  resembles  iodine,  bromine  and  chlorine  in  chemical 
properties.  Fluoride  of  silver  has  been  frequently  recom- 
mended as  an  addition  to  sensitive  substances,  not  giving,  how- 
ever, the  expected  result — higher  sensitiveness. 

Gelatine,  or  glue,  is  extracted  from  bones,  tendons  and  other 
refuse  matter  of  mature  quadrupeds.  Chondrine,  a  similar 
substance,  made  from  cartilages  or  the  bones  of  young  animals, 
cannot  be  used  for  photographic  purposes.  All  commercial 
gelatine  contains  more  or  less  impurities,  and  must  be  purified 
before  it  can  be  used.  This  is  done  by  soaking  the  gelatine  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  several  changes  of  cold  water,  dissolving 
at  a  low  temperature,  and  adding  a  trace  of  acetic  acid.  Then 
mix  intimately  the  white  of  one  egg  with  every  pint  of  the 
solution,  and  heat  rapidly  till  the  albumen  coagulates  ;  filter ; 
allow  to  cool,  and  press  through  coarse  canvas  into  a  vessel 
holding  ice-water ;  change  the  water  several  times ;  collect  the 
jelly,  and  spread  it  upon  nets  to  dry.  Such  gelatine  is  suffi- 
ciently pure  for  all  photographic  purposes. 

The  more  soluble  the  gelatine,  the  finer  will  be  the  film,  but 
the  more  likely  to  frill.  That  used  for  emulsions  should  not 
lose  its  form  by  soaking  in  water. 

Glycerine  is  a  component  of  fats  and  fatty  oils.  It  is  a 
syrupy,  colorless  liquid,  of  sweet  taste.  It  has  a  great  affinity 
for  water,  with  which  it  mixes  in  all  proportions,  and  is 


176  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

employed  whenever  any  substance  is  to  be  kept  moist  for  a 
length  of  time.  For  this  reason,  it  is  added  to  silver-baths, 
when  collodion  plates  made  sensitive  in  them  have  to  be 
exposed  for  a  very  long  time ;  but,  as  nitric  acid  decomposes 
glycerine  speedily,  such  silver-baths  must  be  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid. 

Glycerine  is  added  to  the  gelatine  skins  or  solution  for  strip- 
ping films,  in  order  to  keep  them  flexible. 

Gold  occurs  naturally  in  a  tolerably  pure  state.  To  obtain 
it  free  from  other  metals,  like  silver  or  copper,  it  is  pre- 
cipitated from  its  solution  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  with  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  the  resulting  brown  powder  (chemically- 
pure  gold)  is  carefully  washed,  re-dissolved,  evaporated,  crystal- 
lized, or  kept  in  solution.  The 

Gold  Chloride,  or  ter-chloride,  more  proper,  thus  obtained, 
forms  yellow-brown  crystals ;  is  very  deliquescent ;  soluble  in 
ether,  alcohol  and  water,  and  is  the  basis  for  all  photographic 
toning-baths  for  paper  prints,  and  occasionally,  also,  for  dia- 
positives. 

Gold,  Chloride  and  Sodium,  is  a  crystallizable  double 
salt ;  as  it  does  not  contain  free  acid,  and  is  not  deliquescent,  it 
can  be  much  easier  handled,  and  is,  therefore,  preferred  by 
many. 

Gold,  Salt  of  (Sel  d*  Or),  the  hyposulphite  of  gold  and  sodium, 
is  formed  by  adding  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  to  a 
weak  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  evaporating.  This 
salt  was  used  for  toning  or  gilding  Daguerreotypes,  and  is 
occasionally  employed  for  toning  paper  prints. 

Iodine,  like  chlorine,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  chemical 
properties,  is  disseminated  all  over  the  earth,  but  is  never 
found  in  large  quantities.  In  the  mineral  kingdom  it  occurs 
but  rarely,  but  is  frequent  in  mineral  springs  and  saline  waters. 
It  is  made  from  kelp,  the  ashes  of  certain  deep-sea  fungi,  and 
other  marine  plants,  where  it  usually  occurs  united  with 
sodium.  It  is  a  solid,  of  gray  color  and  metallic  lustre,  resem- 
bling graphite,  with  which  it  is  occasionally  adulterated.  At 
high  temperatures,  it  becomes  liquid,  and  is  resolved  into  deep, 
violet  vapors. 


APPENDIX.  177 

Iodine  is  one  of  the  most  important  substances  for  the 
forming  of  light-sensitive  bodies.  With  it  Daguerre  prepared 
his  sensitive  silver  plates,  and  ever  since  it  has  been  used  to 
make  sensitive  papers,  films  or  plates.  It  combines  energetic- 
ally with  metallic  and  non-metallic  bodies.  In  free  state,  it  is 
used  as  an  alcoholic  solution  or  tincture,  and  sometimes  in 
aqueous  solution,  when  it  is  rendered  soluble  by  the  addition 
of  potassium  iodide.  Tincture  of  iodine  is  added  to  freshly- 
prepared  collodion  to  ripen  it,  and  the  operator  removes  silver 
stains  by  its  use.  The  iodide  of  silver  forming,  being  after- 
wards dissolved  with  hyposulphite  of  soda  or  cyanide  of 
potassium. 

Dilute  tincture  of  iodine  added  to  cold,  boiled  starch  gives  it 
an  intensely  blue  color.  This  compound  has  been  found  to  be 
an  extremely  sensitive  reagent  for  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and 
is,  therefore,  used  to  detect  its  presence  in  prints  or  negative 
films.  A  mere  trace  of  hypo  destroys  the  blue  color  with 
great  energy. 

Iron,  in  different  combinations,  is  an  important  factor  in 
many  photographic  processes. 

Iron  Chloride,  per-chloride,  or  ferric-chloride,  is  in  frag- 
ments, of  a  crystalline  structure,  of  orange -yellow  color,  in- 
odorous, and  of  strong  styptic  taste ;  is  deliquescent,  very 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  With  ferro-cyanide  of 
potassium  (the  yellow  prussiate  of  potassium),  it  forms  an 
intense  blue  precipitate. 

Per-chloride  of  iron  is  used  in  photography  to  arrest  frilling 
of  gelatine  plates ;  with  it,  also,  is  removed  green  fog,  by  con- 
verting the  negative  deposit  into  chloride  of  silver,  and  re- 
developing with  ferrous-oxalate  ;  for  the  preparation  of  ferric- 
oxalate  and  potassio-ferric  oxalate  which,  in  combination  with 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  is  a  fine  reducer  for  over- developed 
negatives. 

Iron  Citrate  and  Ammonia  is  in  garnet-red,  translucent 
scales,  having  a  slightly  styptic  taste ;  is  deliquescent  in  air, 
and  very  soluble  in  water,  forming  a  clear,  ruby-colored  solu- 
tion. With  ferri-cyanide  of  potassium  (the  red  prussiate  of 
potassium)  and  exposure  to  light,  it  gives  us  the  cyanotype  or 
blue  print. 


178  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Iron  Iodide,  a  crystalline  substance  of  greenish-black  color, 
was,  at  one  time,  used  as  an  accelerator  in  the  wet-collodion 
film. 

Iron  Oxalate,  or  ferrous-oxalate,  is  precipitated  when  a  solu- 
tion of  oxalic  acid,  binoxalate,  or  neutral  oxalate  of  potassium 
in  excess  is  added  to  proto-sulphate  of  iron  (ferrous-sulphate). 
It  forms  a  pale  yellow  powder  almost  insoluble  in  water,  but 
dissolves  readily  in  a  solution  of  neutral  oxalate  of  potassium, 
forming  with  it  a  double  salt  (the  common  ferrous-oxalate 
developer).  When  an  excess  of  sulphate  of  iron  is  added  to 
the  oxalate  of  potassium,  it  cannot  be  kept  in  solution  and  the 
yellow  oxalate  of  iron  precipitates.  Such  developer  is  unfit 
for  use.  Allowing  ferrous-oxalate  developer  to  stand  for 
some  time  under  the  influence  of  air,  it  becomes  oxidized, 
separating  from  the  solution  potassio-ferric  oxalate  in  the  form 
of  beautiful  green  crystals.  Partly  oxidized  developer  may 
be  profitably  used  as  a  restrainer,  or  restored  to  its  origina] 
force  by  the  addition  of  small  particles  of  tartaric  acid  and 
exposure  to  direct  sunlight. 

Iron  Proto-sulphate,  sulphate  of  iron,  or  ferrous- sulphate,  is 
in  the  form  of  transparent  crystals,  efflorescent ;  is  of  a  pale 
bluish-green  color,  styptic  taste  and  acid  reaction.  It  is  de- 
composed by  tannic,  gallic,  and  pyrogallic  acid,  forming  a 
bluish-black  compound  (ink).  When  efflorescing  it  loses  a 
part  of  its  water  of  crystallization,  and  is  entirely  deprived  of 
it  by  exsiccation.  In  such  states  the  iron  salt  should  not  be 
employed  for  photographic  purposes ;  neither  is  it  fit  to  be 
used  when,  after  long  standing,  a  brown  or  red  crust  covers 
the  crystals.  That  denotes  a  higher  oxidation,  which  to  pre- 
vent in  our  sulphate  of  iron  solutions,  we  add  a  trace  of  sul- 
phuric acid  to  them. 

Kaolin,  or  porcelain  clay,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  sili- 
cate of  aluminia. 

It  is  used  for  decolorizing  the  silver  sensitizing  bath. 

Lead.  Not  many  of  the  salts  of  this  metal  have  been 
entered  upon  the  list  of  photographic  chemicals. 

Lead  Acetate,  at  one  time  considered  to  be  a  perfect  hypo- 
eliminator,  is  now  done  almost  entirely  away  with,  its  deleteri- 
ous effects  having  been  conclusively  shown. 


APPENDIX.  179 

Lead  Nitrate  was  recommended  by  Dr.  Eder  as  an  intensi- 
fier  for  black  and  white  collodion  negatives,  and  is  now  largely 
employed  as  such.  When  nitrate  of  lead  and  ferri-cyanide  of 
potassium  are  acting  upon  a  negative  deposit,  the  ferri-cyanide 
is  deoxidized  to  ferro-cyanide,  forming,  with  the  lead,  ferro- 
cyanide  of  lead,  an  insoluble  compound,  which  is  subsequently 
blackened  with  hydro-sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Litmus  is  a  coloring  matter  derived  from  r^ocella  tinctoria, 

O  / 

and  other  lichens.  It  is  used  as  a  test  for  acids  and  alkalines, 
and  is  employed  either  in  tincture  or  bibulous  paper  colored 
with  it.  When  acidity  is  present  the  blue  color  turns  red, 
and  is  restored  again  to  blue  by  alkaline  solutions. 

Magnesium  is  a  white  malleable  metal  which  burns  with  a 
a  brilliant  flame  of  highly  actinic  power,  furnishing  to  the 
photographer  a  very  useful  artificial  light.  Since,  with  the 
presence  of  oxygen,  the  flame  becomes  still  more  actinic,  the 
metal  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  is  mixed  with  purveyors  of 
oxygen  and  then  ignited.  Instantaneous  exposures  can  thus 
be  made  in  total  darkness. 

Magnesium  Chloride  is  sometimes  used  for  the  salting  of 
paper,  and  the  iodide  was  at  one  time  considered  a  most  ex- 
cellent sensitizer  for  negative  collodion. 

Magnesium  Sulphate,  or  Epsom  salts,  a  white  crystalline 
salt,  of  bitter  taste,  is  an  excellent  anti-frill,  because  it  has 
the  property  of  hardening  gelatine  and  similar  substances. 

Mercury  is  the  only  liquid  metal  in  existence.  It  is  vola- 
tile even  at  such  moderate  temperatures  as  70-80  deg.  F. 
By  means  of  mercurial  vapors  the  Daguerrean  plates  were  de- 
veloped. 

Mercury  Bichloride,  mercuric  chloride,  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate is  a  colorless,  crystalline,  semi-transparent  mass,  of 
metallic  taste,  and  is  very  poisonous.  It  is  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether. 

When  a  photographic  deposit  is  washed  with  a  solution  of 
mercuric  chloride,  a  white  double  chloride  of  mercury  and 
silver  will  form,  which  is  insoluble  in  water.  Upon  this 
action  are  based  most  processes  of  intensifying ;  the  white 
image  being  afterwards  blackened  with  ammonia  or  sulphite  of 


180  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

sodium.  Positives  on  japanned  tin-plates  are  whitened  with 
the  mercuric  chloride  (alabastrines)  and  the  silver  is  bleached 
from  drawings  to  serve  the  photo-engraver.  Paper  photo- 
graphs bleached  out  with  mercury  can  be  restored  again  by 
hypo-sulphite  of  soda  or  ammonia  ("  magic "  photographs). 
With  mercuric  chlorides  we  remove  silver  stains  from  our 
garments  and  fingers,  or  when  in  very  dilute  solution  restore 
yellow  prints  to  their  original  whiteness. 

Mercury  Nitrate  in  solution  is  a  test  for  hypo,  with  which 
it  forms  a  brown-black  precipitate. 

Platinum  is  a  precious  metal  of  dull,  grayish-white  color,  of 
less  lustre  than  silver,  not  affected  by  mineral  acids.  Like 
gold,  it  combines  with  chlorine,  and  to  effect  its  solution  aqua 
regia,  or  nitro-muriatic  acid,  alone  can  be  used.  The  resulting 
platinum  chloride  is  a  dark-brown  solution. 

Platinum  Potassio-chloride,  a  double  salt  of  bright  yellow 
color,  is  used  in  the  different  platinum  printing  processes. 

Potassium  is  the  metallic  radical  of  all  the  salts  bearing  its 
name.  Its  oxyd, 

Potassium  Hydroxyd,  or  caustic  potash,  is  a  deliquescent 
and  easily  soluble  substance,  occasionally  used  as  an  accelera- 
tor in  developing  gelatine  emulsion  plates. 

Potassium  Bichromate,  orange-red,  anhydrous,  prismatic 
crystals,  soluble  in  ten  parts  of  water,  not  soluble  in  alcohol, 
of  strong  acid  reaction,  is  very  poisonous.  All  chromates  are 
indirectly  sensitive  to  light.  Their  behavior  towards  light 
when  mixed  with  organic  matter,  gelatine,  or  albumen,  is 
of  the  highest  interest,  for  upon  it  are  based  most  photo- 
mechanical printing  processes.  Light  changes  the  chromates 
and  oxydizes  the  organic  matter,  making  it  insoluble  in  water. 

Potassium  Bromide.  This  salt  forms  white,  cubical  crys- 
tals which  are  very  soluble  in  water,  but  sparingly  so  in 
alcohol.  For  the  preparation  of  bromide  of  silver,  in  the 
emulsion  process,  it  is  better  adapted  than  any  of  the  other 
.  bromides.  For  that  purpose  it  is  important  to  use  it  in  a 
state  of  absolute  purity. 

The  presence  of  iodide  can  be  detected  by  the  yellow  color 
of  the  precipitate,  when  a  trace  of  nitrate  of  silver  solution  is 


APPENDIX.  181 

added  to  a  solution  of  the  bromide.  Iodide  is  denoted  when 
the  precipitate  has  a  yellow  color.  Bromide  of  potassium  is 
used  extensively  to  form  bromide  of  silver  in  emulsions  for 
sensitizing  collodion,  and  is  the  most  popular  restrainer  in 
developing  emulsion-plates. 

Potassium  Carbonate  is  usually  made  from  the  crude  pot- 
ash. A  very  pure  article,  sufficient  for  developing  purposes, 
is  prepared  by  incinerating  cream  of  tartar — bitartrate  of 
potassium  —  lixiviating  the  ashes  and  evaporation.  It  is  a 
white,  deliquescent  salt,  very  soluble  in  water,  has  a  strong 
alkaline  reaction  and  effervesces  with  acids.  With  carbonate 
of  potassium  are  prepared  the  most  energetic  developers  for 
instantaneous  exposures. 

Potassium  Bicarbonate.  The  ordinary  carbonate  united 
with  another  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid.  Saleratus  is  an 
impure  bicarbonate.  It  is  soluble  in  water  but  not  in  alcohol. 
It  is  used  to  neutralize  acid  solutions  and  to  soften  gelatine  in 
some  of  the  photo-mechanical  processes. 

Potassium  Chlorate  has  of  late  found  photographic  employ- 
ment in  furnishing  oxygen  to  the  burning  magnesium  of  its  flash- 
light compounds ;  but,  on  account  of  its  explosive  properties, 
the  salt  has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned.  It  has  no  other 
use  in  photography. 

Potassium  Chloride  closely  resembles  common  salt  (sodium 
chloride)  in  appearance,  assuming  the  cubic  form  of  crystalliza- 
tion. It  is  but  rarely  used. 

Potassium  Cyanide.  The  commercial  article  comes  in  white, 
opaque,  amorphous  masses,  of  sharp,  alkaline,  bitter  taste,  and 
alkaline  reaction ;  exhales  the  odor  of  hydro-cyanic  acid,  and 
is  very  poisonous.  For  collodion  plates  it  was  much  used  for 
fixing  purposes.  It  might  be  used  for  gelatine  plates,  also, 
for  the  same  purpose ;  but,  it  being  adulterated  very  fre- 
quently with  hydrate  and  carbonate  of  potassium,  these  salts 
would  weaken  the  gelatine  film  very  much.  Except  to  remove 
with  it  silver  stains  from  hands  and  fingers,  the  article  is  but 
rarely  used  since  gelatine  plates  have  superseded  the  collodion. 

Potassium  Sulpho-cyanide,  analagous  to  the  ammonium  salt, 
is  white  and  crystallizable,  resembling  the  taste  of  nitre ;  soluble 


182  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

in  water  and  alcohol,  and  very  poisonous.  It  has  been  employed 
as  a  fixing- agent,  and,  in  combination  with  the  chloride  of  gold, 
in  toning-baths. 

Potassium  Ferri-cyanide,  known  as  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
is  obtained  by  passing  chlorine  gas  through  a  solution  of 
potassium  ferro- cyanide.  It  forms  beautiful  red  crystals,  which 
are  converted  by  light  into  the  yellow  potassium  ferro-cyanide ; 
the  solution  produces  a  dark-blue  precipitate  with  ferrous  salts, 
and  a  brown  color  with  ferric  salts. 

It  is  used  in  the  cyanotype  process.  Potassium  ferri-cyanide, 
being  sensitive  to  light,  its  solutions  should  be  kept  in  the  dark. 
If  the  solution  has  assumed  a  greenish  or  blue  color,  it  is  unfit  for 
use.  With  hyposulphite  of  soda,  it  forms  Farmer's  solution 
for  the  reduction  of  intensity,  and,  with  nitrate  of  uranium, 
Selle's  intensifier,  recently  used  for  toning  bromide  prints  or 
transparencies  on  gelatine  plates. 

Potassium  Ferro-cyanide,  or  yellow  prussiate,  is  obtained 
by  heating  refuse  animal  matter  with  iron  filings  and  potassium 
carbonate.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol.  It  forms 
very  beautiful  yellow  crystals.  With  ferrous  salts  it  gives  a 
pale,  blue  precipitate,  while,  with  ferric  salts,  a  precipitate  of 
Prussian  blue  ensues.  Because  of  this  property,  it  is  also  used 
in  some  of  the  blue  print  methods,  especially  in  one  by  which 
positives  from  positives  are  obtained. 

Potassium  Hypochlorite,  in  solution,  is  the  well-known  eau 
de  javelle,  which  is  an  excellent  hypo-eliminator. 

Potassium  Iodide  is  prepared  by  adding  iodine  to  a  solution 
of  hydrate  of  potassium,  and,  after  evaporating,  by  gently 
heating  the  solution  to  decompose  the  iodate  formed  simultan- 
eously with  the  iodide.  It  forms  white,  cubical  crystals,  which 
are  very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  With  nitrate  of  silver 
the  solution  produces  a  bright,  yellow  precipitate  of  iodide  of 
silver. 

Iodide  of  potassium  is  extensively  used  for  sensitizing  collo- 
dion, and  is  now  invariably  added  to  bromide  emulsions  to 
increase  sensitiveness. 

Potassium  Nitrate,  saltpetre  or  nitre,  a  white  salt,  of  sharp, 
cooling,  bitterish  taste ;  crystallizes  in  long,  striated,  six-sided 


APPENDIX.  183 

prisms,  permanent  in  air.  It  is  devoid  of  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion; soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol.  In  combination 
with  sulphuric  acid,  photographers  use  it  in  the  making  of 
gun-cotton ;  as  an  addition  to  the  developer  for  collodion  posi- 
tives (Spiller  &  Crooker) ;  as  a  restrainer  in  alkaline  develop- 
ment. 

Potassium  Oxalate.  There  are  three  combinations  of  potas- 
sium with  oxalic  acid — the  neutral  salt,  the  bin-oxalate,  and 
the  quadroxalate — of  which  the  neutral  salt  alone  concerns  the 
photographer.  It  is  colorless  and  efflorescent,  of  bitter  taste, 
and  poisonous. 

The  neutral  salt  of  commerce  reacts  more  or  less  alkaline, 
in  which  state  it  will,  in  the  oxalate  developer,  produce  hard 
and  glassy  negatives.  Hence  oxalic  acid  is  added  to  its  solu- 
tion in  quantities  sufficient  to  slightly  redden  litmus  paper.  It 
should,  also,  be  free  from  chlorides. 

Potassium  Permanganate  forms  crystals  of  dark  purple 
color ;  its  solutions  are  red.  Manganates  and  permanganates 
are  decomposed  by  organic  matter  acting  upon  them  as  oxi- 
dizers.  Hence  the  salt  is  used  to  rectify  silver  baths  over- 
charged with  organic  substances.  Permanganate  solution 
should  be  added  as  long  as  the  roseate  color  remains.  Sun- 
ning the  bath  afterwards  is  advisable.  An  excess  of  the  salt 
makes  the  solution  alkaline,  which  requires  after-acidulation. 

Potassium  Silicate,  which  is  ordinary  glass,  can  be  made  in 
a  soluble  modification  when  silica  is  melted  with  twice  its 
weight  of  carbonate  of  potassium  or  sodium,  and  the  product 
treated  with  water,  which  dissolves  the  greater  part.  This 
preparation,  known  as  water-glass  or  soluble  glass,  is  used  as  a 
substratum  for  gelatine  emulsion  plates  and  in  making  Licht- 
druck  plates. 

Potassium  Sulphate  is  a  white,  hard,  semi-transparent  salt, 
soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol ;  is  claimed  to  give  collo- 
dion positives  a  white  metallic  lustre  when  added  to  the  iron 
developer. 

Potassium  Sulphide,  sulphuret,  hepar  sulphuris,  or  liver  of 
sulphur,  is  the  substance  with  which  photographers  precipitate 
silver  from  waste  solutions.  It  is  a  solid,  amorphous  mass  of 


184  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

liver-brown  color,  and  very  soluble  in  water.  The  solutions, 
when  exposed  to  air,  oxidize,  form  sulphate  of  potassium,  and 
separate  sulphur.  When  dry,  it  is  inodorous;  in  the  moist 
state,  its  odor  is  very  disagreeable.  The  sulphide  is  also  used 
to  intensify  collodion  negatives. 

Pyroxyline,  or  gun-cotton,  dissolved  in  ether- alcohol,  consti- 
tutes the  photographic  collodion.  It  is  prepared  by  subjecting 
white  cotton,  free  from  greasy  matter,  to  the  action  of  nitrate 
of  potassium  and  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and 
nitric  acid,  washing  tillvall  acid  is  removed,  and  then  spontane- 
ously drying.  It  should  be  perfectly  white,  without  exhaling 
the  odor  of  nitrous  acid,  and  should  be  soluble  without  sedi- 
ment. Gun-cotton  of  long  fibre,  producing  a  crackling  noise 
when  being  pulled  out,  is  generally  preferred  for  negative  col- 
lodion ;  when  in  a  powdery  state,  it  is  asserted  to  be  better 
adapted  for  positives  (ferrotypes), 

Sal-soda  is  of  high  value  in  the  photographers'  laboratory,  as 
a  medium  for  the  cleaning  of  glass  plates,  preparatory  to 
coating  them  with  sensitive  substances. 

Silver  is  found  naturally  in  large  quantities — occasionally  in 
a  very  pure  state.  In  combination  with  chlorine,  bromine,  or 
iodine,  it  is  the  most  important  factor  in  all  photographic 
operations,  for  it  forms  the  photographic  image,  when  reduced 
to  metallic  silver  by  a  variety  of  processes. 

Silver  Acetate.  When  the  silver  bath,  in  the  wet  collodion 
process,  is  acidulated  to  a  great  extent  with  acetic  acid,  very 
small  crystals  of  the  nearly  insoluble  acetate  of  silver  will  sepa- 
rate, settle  upon  the  sides  of  the  bath-dish ;  even  upon  the 
surface  of  the  collodion  film  to  be  sensitized.  These  crystals 
interfere  greatly  with  the  operation  to  be  performed,  and  their 
presence  makes  the  bath  useless. 

Silver  Bromide,  an  insoluble  haloid,  of  grayish-white  color, 
is  formed  when  a  solution  of  an  alkaline  bromide  is  added  to  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  Bromide  of  silver  is  known  to 
exist  in  five  modifications  of  different  sensitiveness  and  aggre- 
gation. That  employed  in  photography  is  easily  blackened  by 
light,  easily  soluble  in  cyanide  of  potassium  and  hyposulphite 
of  sodium,  but  sparingly  so  in  ammonia.  Silver  bromide  is 


APPENDIX.  185 

,     / 

the  active  principal  in  our  negative  emulsions ;  the  addition  of 
a  certain  percentage  of  silver  iodides  increases  their  sensitive- 
ness. The  various  kinds  of  bromide  of  silver  paper  have 
superseded  all  other  positive  enlarging  processes,  and,  to  some 
extent,  contact  printing  upon  other  sensitive  paper  also. 

Silver  Carbonate.  When,  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
carbonate  of  soda  is  added,  a  yellowish-white  precipitate  will 
deposit,  which  is  carbonate  of  silver.  This  precipitate,  allowed 
to  settle,  and  after  being  well  washed,  when  added  to  a  silver- 
bath,  is  the  best  means  to  keep  it  in  a  constant  state  of  neu- 
trality. Acidity  formed  in  a  printing-bath,  after  repeated  use, 
will  be  neutralized  by  keeping  some  of  the  solution  in  the 
stock  bottle. 

Carbonate  of  silver,  thrown  down  from  old  solutions  or 
wastes,  is  converted  again  into  chemically-pure  nitrate  by  dis- 
solving it  carefully  in  dilute  nitric  acid. 

Silver  Chloride  is  prepared  similarly  to  the  bromide  by 
bringing  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  contact  with  an 
alkaline  chloride.  Horn  Silver,  as  this  preparation  was  called 
in  ancient  times,  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  researches  on 
the  action  of  light.  Chlorine  gas  is  liberated,  when  it  is 
exposed  to  light,  leaving  a  residue  of  metallic  silver  intimately 
mixed  with  undeveloped  chloride.  It  is  soluble  in  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  ammonia,  cyanide  of  potassium,  and  more  or 
less  in  a  great  many  soluble  chlorides.  The  main  substance 
upon  which  all  photographic  printing  depends  is  chloride  of 
silver,  for  when  salted,  plain,  or  albumemzed  paper  is  floated 
upon  a  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  chloride  of  silver  is  formed. 

Chloride  of  silver  emulsions  are  popular.  With  collodion,  as 
a  carrier  for  the  sensitive'  salt,  are  made  aristotypes ;  with  gela- 
tine, it  is  used  in  the  various  opal,  transparency,  and  other  pro- 
cesses. 

Silver  Hyposulphite  and  /Sodium,  argento-sodium  hyposul- 
phite, is  a  double  salt,  formed  during  the  fixing  of  a  plate  or 
print.  Being  sensitive  to  light,  it  is  advisable  to  conduct  the 
fixing  operation  in  a  dark  room,  or  in  subdued  light.  At  a 
certain  point  of  the  fixing  this  salt  is  formed,  but  it  is  dis- 
solved again  in  an  excess  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda.  If, 


186  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

before  its  dissolution,  the  plate  or  print  is  exposed  to  light, 
sulphides  form  with  the  separation  of  sulphur,  and  the  film 
turns  yellow.  Such  stains  it  is  impossible  to  remove.  To 
obviate  entirely  such  occurrences,  it  is  commendable  to  employ 
in  all  fixing  operations  a  second  freshly-prepared  hypo  bath. 
The  injurious  double  salt  being  soluble  in  hypo,  &  fresh  fixing 
solution,  not  contaminated  with  dissolved  silver,  is  the  best 
safeguard  against  fading  or  yellowing. 

Silver  Iodide,  resembling  the  two  other  silver  haloids,  is  of 
a  decidedly  yellow  color.  With  iodide  of  silver  the  Daguer- 
reotype was  made.  It  was  the  sensitive  medium  of  the 
Talbotype,  and  mainly  that  of  the  American  (W  hippie's)  nega- 
tive albumen  process.  Collodion  was  sensitized  solely  with  it, 
until  bromide  became  its  associate.  When  in  the  preparation 
of  iodide  of  silver  an  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  present,  the 
precipitate  is  of  a  decided  yellow  color  and  highly  sensitive, 
but  when  the  alkaline  iodide  prevails,  the  resulting  deposit  is 
of  a  pale  color  and  absolutely  non-sensitive.  It  is  but  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  ammonia,  but  cyanide  of  potassium  and  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  dissolve  the  iodide  with  great  energy.  The 
addition  of  a  small  percentage  of  iodide  of  silver  to  the 
bromide  emulsion  increases  sensitiveness  and  gives  brilliancy  to 
the  negatives ;  passing  that  point,  the  negative  becomes  feeble, 
and  the  plates  fix  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  Pure  iodide  of 
silver  gives  the  best  results  in  the  "black  and  white"  collodion 
copying  processes. 

Silver  Nitrate  is  prepared  by  dissolving  pure  metallic  silver 
in  dilute  nitric  acid,  evaporating  the  solution  to  crystallization 
point,  and  crystallizing  the  salt.  If  evaporation  is  carried  on 
so  far  that  the  mass  in  the  bowl  begins  to  flow  like  an  oil,  and 
is  then  poured  into  forms,  or  upon  a  cold  marble  slab,  we  have 
fused  nitrate  of  silver.  For  photographic  use  the  crystallized 
salt  is  preferable  ;  by  long-continued  heating  the  nitrate  is  par- 
tially reduced  to  nitrite,  injurious,  at  least,  in  the  collodion 
process. 

Nitrate  of  silver  comes  in  colorless,  transparent  crystals, 
sometimes  of  considerable  size,  when  they  have  a  metallic  ring. 
It  is  soluble  in  its  own  weight  of  water  and  in  four  parts  of 


187 

alcohol.  When  its  solutions  are  precipitated  with  a  soluble 
chloride  or  hydrochloric  acid,  the  supernatant  liquid  should 
not  leave  a  residue  after  evaporation,  and  the  precipitate  be 
perfectly  soluble  in  ammonia.  That  is  a  proof  of  the  purity  of 
the  salt. 

From  the  nitrate  of  silver  are  derived  all  the  silver  haloids 
used  in  photography. 

Ammonia  causes  a  precipitate  in  nitrate  of  silver  solutions, 
but  the  precipitate  re-dissolves  in  an  excess  of  the  precipitant. 
Ammonio-nitrate  of  silver  thus  formed  is  used  in  Dr.  Eder's 
gelatine  emulsion  and  various  printing  methods  on  plain  or 
albumenized  paper.  Fuming  of  sensitized  paper  is  based  upon 
the  reaction  of  ammonia. 

Sodium,  a  silver-white  metal,  oxidizing  rapidly  in  air,  is  the 
radical  of  all  the  salts  bearing  its  name.  It  is  found  in  enor- 
mous quantities,  and  is  distributed  all  over  the  world ;  in  solid 
crystalline  masses,  in  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  many  saline 
springs. 

The  hydrated  oxide  is  occasionally  used  to  accelerate  alka- 
line developing. 

Sodium  Acetate  is  a  white  salt,  crystallizing  in  long,  striated 
prisms,  of  sharp,  bitterish  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  water  and  of 
neutral  reaction.  As  an  addition  to  the  gold  toning-bath, 
neutralized  with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  it  is  invaluable  for  the 
producing  of  the  much-desired  proper  tone  of  albumenized 
prints. 

Sodium  B  or  ate,  Bi-borate,  or  Borax,  exists  native  in  sev- 
eral localities  of  America  and  Europe.  It  is  a  white,  crystal- 
line salt,  reacts  alkaline,  and  possesses  a  bitter,  alkaline  taste. 
On  account  of  its  alkalinity  it  is  employed  in  many  toning 
methods,  where  it  is  claimed  to  give  black  shades. 

Borax  is  a  strong  restrainer  in  the  alkaline  development,  and 
is,  furthermore,  an  aid  in  dissolving  shellac  in  water.  Such 
shellac  solutions  are  occasionally  employed  as  varnishes  for 
gelatine  negatives,  but  their  principal  use  is  to  give  gloss  to 
Lichtdrucks  and  photo-lithographs. 

Sodium  Bromide  and  Iodide  are  but  rarely  used  in  photog- 
raphy at  present. 


188  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC   INSTRUCTOR. 

Sodium  Carbonate.  The  crystals  of  this  extensively-used 
and  well-known  salt  (sal-soda)  dissolve  rapidly  in  water,  are  of 
disagreeable  taste  and  strong  alkaline  reaction.  We  use  this 
salt  as  an  accelerator  to  the  developing  of  emulsion  plates  with 
pyrogallol.  Exsiccated — that  is,  deprived  of  its  water  of  crys- 
tallization— its  strength  is  about  doubled ;  hence  half  the  quan- 
tity only  should  be  taken  when  a  formula  prescribes  the  crys- 
tallized salt. 

Sodium  Bicarbonate,  a  preparation  similar  to  the  corre- 
sponding potassium  salt,  is  milder  in  taste  and  does  not  act  as 
forcibly  as  the  simple  carbonate.  Its  use  to  neutralize  the 
acidity  of  the  chloride  of  gold,  for  the  purpose  of  toning,  is 
quite  universal, 

Sodium  Chloride,  the  common  table  salt,  occurs  in  enormous 
quantities  all  over  the  world.  For  the  salting  of  printing 
papers  it  is  but  rarely  used,  the  corresponding  ammonium 
chloride  being  generally  preferred. 

Sodium  Citrate,  a  white,  crystalline  salt,  of  saline  taste  and 
easily  soluble  in  water,  is  a  most  energetic  restrainer.  Its 
action,  when  employed  in  a  10  per  cent,  solution,  is  so  ex- 
tremely forcible  that  plates  believed  to  be  hopelessly  over- 
exposed will  result  in  serviceable  negatives  by  its  use. 

Sodium  Hypochlorite,  or  Labarraque's  solution  is,  like  the 
potassium  hypochlorite,  used  to  destroy  chemically  the  last 
traces  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  print  or  plate. 

Sodium  Hyposulphite,  large,  colorless,  transparent  crystals, 
of  saline  taste  and  neutral  reaction ;  is  very  soluble  in  water,  but 
not  in  alcohol.  Its  solution  dissolves  the  haloids  of  silver,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  value  in  all  photographic  opera- 
tions, for  it  dissolves  from  plate,  film  or  paper  all  those  parts 
of  the  silver  salt  upon  which  light  and  the  developer  have  not 
acted  ;  it  "  fixes  "  them,  as  it  improperly  is  called.  The  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  of  commerce  is  pure  and  neutral  enough 
to  use  for  all  our  purposes;  the  addition  of  alkalis  to  its 
solution  is  of  no  use  whatever,  excepting,  perhaps,  in  a  few 
particular  cases.  Sulphuric,  muriatic  or  other  strong  acids 
added  to  the  solution  separates  sulphur  and  causes  sulphurous 
acid  to  evolve.  The  salt  is  thereby  distinguished  from  the 


APPENDIX.  189 

sulphite,  which,  with  acid,  evolves  likewise  sulphurous  acid 
but  without  precipitating  sulphur. 

Hyposulphite  dissolves  iodine  and  destroys  the  blue  color  of 
iodide  of  starch.  Hence  iodide  of  starch  is  a  valuable  test  for 
hypo. 

This  salt,  a  valuable  assistant,  is  also  a  great  enemy  to  the 
photographer  when  improperly  used.  It  is  easily  decomposed, 
resulting  in  sulphuration. 

In  extremely  weak  solutions  it  accelerates  the  f  errous-oxalate 
development.  If  too  strong,  a  lustrous  deposit  of  metallic 
silver  will  result. 

Sodium  Nitrate,  cubic  or  Chili  saltpetre,  called  so  from  its 
crystalline  form  and  native  source,  is  but  rarely  employed. 
Owing  to  its  great  ease  of  crystallization  it  has  been  refused  as 
a  nitrifier  in  the  making  of  gun-cotton. 

Sodium  Silicate,  soluble  sodium  glass,  like  the  analagous 
potassium  silicate,  is  used  similarly  as  a  substratum  for  emulsion 
films. 

Sodiiim  Sulphite  is  in  the  form  of  white,  transparent 
crystals,  very  soluble  in  water.  It  is  deliquescent ;  when 
exposed  to  air  it  attracts  oxygen,  forming  itself  into  sulphate. 
Sulphite  is  a  preserver  of  pyrogallol,  sulphate  is  not.  Hence, 
when  in  pure  state,  it  is  employed  extensively  for  the  purpose 
stated.  If,  however,  the  salt  is  not  what  it  pretends  to  be,  it 
becomes  useless. 

The  granulated  or  exsiccated  sulphite  is  safer  to  employ, 
because  it  is  more  constant  than  the  crystallized  salt ;  still,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  it  loses  about  50  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  by  exsiccation,  and,  if  a  formula  calls  for  a  certain 
amount  of  the  crystallized  salt,  half  the  quantity  of  the  granu- 
lated will  be  approximately  correct.  Many  virtues  and  faults 
have  been  ascribed  to  the  sulphite,  but,  besides  its  pyro- 
preserving  properties,  no  other  advantages  have  been  dis- 
tinctly proved. 

Sodium  Tung  state,  a  rare  salt,  of  neutral  reaction,  is  said  to 
give  positive  black  tones  when  used  with  the  gold  toning-bath. 

Strontium  is  a  metal  resembling  calcium  in  appearance  and 
chemical  properties. 


190  THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

Its  nitrate  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  chloride  of  silver, 
collodion  emulsions,  and  similar  processes. 

Uranium  Nitrate  is  produced  by  dissolving  the  metal  ura- 
nium, or  either  of  its  oxides,  in  nitric  acid.  The  salt  forms 
bright,  yellow  crystals  with  a  greenish  cast ;  is  very  soluble  in 
water  and  alcohol.  In  combination  with  ferri-cyanide  of 
potassium  it  is  used  as  a  mechanical  intensifier  for  gelatine  and 
collodion  plates,  positives  and  negatives  alike.  Its  action  is  to 
give  the  plate  a  non-actinic,  brown  color,  by  which  printing  is 
retarded.  A  very  dilute  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
removes  the  color  without  injury  to  the  silver  deposit. 

With  nitrate  of  uranium  a  great  variety  of  tones  on  paper  or 
glass  can  be  made.  It  is  sensitive  to  light. 

Varnish.  Most  photographic  varnishes  consist  of  alcoholic 
solutions  of  shellac,  resins,  or  resinous  gums.  Gelatine,  being 
extremely  hygroscopic,  all  moisture  must  be  expelled  from  its 
films  before  varnish  is  applied.  When  moisture  is  present  the 
shellac  will  precipitate  upon  the  film  in  the  form  of  white, 
granular  deposits.  A  wash  with  alcohol  will  remove  these 
deposits,  after  which  varnishing  can  be  accomplished. 

Water  is  a  transparent  liquid  without  color,  taste,  or  odor, 
consisting  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  By  reason  of  its  great  dis- 
solving power,  it  is  always  more  or  less  contaminated  with 
foreign  matter,  carbonic  acid,  carbonates,  chlorides,  ammonia, 
and  organic  substances.  Carbonic  acid  and  other  gases  ab- 
sorbed in  water  cause  blisters  upon  albumenized  paper ;  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  water  forms  a  precipitate  with  the  oxalate  of 
potassium  ;  and  chlorides  precipitate  silver.  For  most  photo- 
graphic operations,  purified  or  distilled  water  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Ordinary  water  boiled  for  some  time  and  allowed 
to  cool  is  free  from  calcareous  matter,  and  absorbed  gases  are 
expelled,  hence  it  is  comparatively  pure,  and  may  be  em- 
ployed for  photographic  use. 

Zinc  is  a  bluish-white  metal,  brittle,  and  of  crystalline  struc- 
ture. It  is  added,  occasionally,  when  reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 
der, to  the  magnesium  flash-light  compounds.  It  burns  with 
a  bluish-green,  quite  actinic  flame,  and  may  be  used  profitably 
in  this  connection  when  long  exposures  are  required.  With 


APPENDIX.  191 

polished  zinc  plates  or  rods,  it  precipitates  metallic  silver  from 
waste  solutions  by  mere  immersion,  and  in  photo-mechanical 
printing  methods  zinc  plays  a  highly  important  part.  Upon 
finely  polished  zinc  plates,  coated  with  asphaltum  or  bichro- 
matized  organic  substances,  are  printed  the  photographs  pre- 
paratory to  etching  them  into  high  reliefs  for  the  ordinary 
typographic  press. 

Zinc  Bromide  is  occasionally  added  to  sensitive  collodion. 

Zinc  Hypochlorite,  prepared  by  decomposing  chloride  of 
lime  with  zinc  sulphate,  is  a  perfect  and  absolutely  safe  hypo- 
eliminator,  because  the  salts  resulting  from  the  contact  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda  with  hypochlorite  of  zinc  are  very  solu- 
ble in  water  and  harmless  to  the  photographic  silver  deposit. 


192  THE   PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 

ENGLISH  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


APOTHECARIES'    WEIGHT. 


SOLID     MEASURE. 

20  "Grains      =  1  Scruple   =      20  Grains. 
3  Scruples  =  1  Dram  60 

8  Drams      =  1  Ounce     =    480 

12  Ounces     =  1  Pound    =  5760       " 


FLUID. 

60  Minims     =  1  Fluid  Dram. 
8  Drams      =  1  Ounce. 
20  Ounces     =  1  Pint. 


unces     =        int. 
8  Pints         =  1  Gallon. 

-- 


The  above  weights  are  those  usually  adopted  in  formulae. 


All  Chemicals  are  usually  sold  by 
AVOIRDUPOIS    WEIGHT. 

Grains    =  1  Dram      '=      27^  Grains. 
16      Drams    =  1  Ounce     =    437| 
16      Ounces  =  1  Pound     =  7000 


Precious  Metals  are  usually  sold  by 
TROY    WEIGHT. 

24  Grains  =  1  Pennyweight  =      24  Grains. 

20  Pennyweights  =  1  Ounce  —    480 

12  Ounces  =  1  Pound  =  5760 


NOTE. — An  ounce  of  metallic  silver  contains  480  grains,  but  an  ounce 
of  nitrate  of  silver  contains  only  437^  grains. 


APPENDIX.  193 

THE  METEIC   SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES. 

The  meter  is  a  measure  of  length  equal  to  39.370  English 
inches,  or  39.368  American  inches,  a  standard  of  linear  meas- 
ure supposed  to  be  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance  from 
the  equator  to  the  north  pole,  as  ascertained  by  actual  meas- 
urement of  an  are  of  the  meridian. 

This  system,  formed  on  the  meter  as  the  unit  of  length,  has 
four  other  leading  units,  all  connected  with  and  dependent 
upon  this.  Hence,  we  have : 

1.  The  meter,  which  is  the  unit  of  measures  of  length. 

2.  The  are,  which  is  the  unit  of  surface,  and  is  the  square 
of  the  meters. 

3.  The  litre,  which  is  the  unit  of  measures  of  capacity,  and 
is  the  cube  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  meter. 

4.  The  stere,  which  is  the  unit  of  measures  of  solidity,  hav- 
ing the  capacity  of  a  cubic  meter. 

5.  The  gram,  which  is  the  unit  of  measures    of   weight, 
and  is  the  weight  of  that  quantity  of  distilled  water  at  its 
maximum  density,  fills  the  cube  of  a  hundredth  part  of  the 
meter. 

Each  unit  has  its  decimal  multiples  and  submultiples,  that 
is  weights  and  measures  ten  times  larger,  or  ten  times  smaller, 
than  the  principal  units.  The  prefixes  denoting  multiples  are 
derived  from  the  Greek  and  are  :  deka,  ten  ;  hecto,  hundred  ; 
kilo,  thousand,  and  myria,  ten  thousand.  Those  denoting  sub- 
multiples  are  taken  from  the  Latin,  and  are  deci,  ten  ;  centi, 
hundred  (like  in  centigram  or  centimeter)  and  milli,  thousand. 

The  metric  system  has  been  adopted  by  many  nations,  the 
English  excepted.  In  America  its  use  has  been  made  optional, 
but  is  legalized  by  CoDgress.  All  photographic  formulae  re- 
ceived from  the  continent  of  Europe  express  values  and  quan- 
tities with  metrical  weights  and  measures.  To  utilize  them 
direct  without  translating  into  the  expressions  of  the  English 
system,  the  student  is  advised  to  procure  gram  weights  and 
cubic  centimeter  graduates,  and  substitute  them  for  those  de- 
noting quantities  according  to  the  old  plan. 

As  an  assistant  to  those  who  cannot  acquire  these  aids,  we 
annex  tables  taken  from  the  "British  Almanac  of  Photog- 
raphy," which  convert  grams  and  cubic  centimeters  into 
English  grains,  drams,  and  ounces,  sufficiently  correct  for 
practical  purposes. 


194 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


FRENCH    FLUID    MEASURES. 

THE  cubic  centimetre,  usually  represented  by  "  c.c.,"  is  the  unit  of  the 
French  measurement  for  liquids.  It  contains  nearly  seventeen  minims  of 
water;  in  reality,  it  contains  16'896  minims.  The  weight  of  this  quantity 
of  water  is  one  gram.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cubic  centimeter  and 
the  gram  bear  to  each  other  the  same  relation  as  our  dram  for  solids  nnd 
the  dram  for  fluids,  or  as  the  minim  and  the  grain.  The  following  table 
will  prove  to  be  sufficiently  accurate  for  photographic  purposes  : 
1  cubic  centimetre  —  17  minims  (as  near  as  possible). 


2  cubic  centimetres  = 

34 

• 

3                                  = 

51 

4               '                   = 

68 

or  1  dram     8  minims. 

5                                     = 

85 

4 

1       "      25       " 

6               '                    = 

102 

1       "      42       " 

7                                  = 

119 

1       "      59       " 

8              "                   = 

136 

2  drams  16 

9                                  = 

153 

2      "      33      " 

10                                  = 

170 

2       "      50       " 

20              "                   = 

340 

5       "      40       " 

30              "                   = 

510 

1  ounce    0  dram     30  minims. 

40 

'                     — 

680 

1       "        3  drams  20 

50 

4                              — 

850 

1       "        6      "       10 

60 

'                              n: 

1020 

2  ounces  1      "         0 

70. 

'                              — 

1190 

2       "        3      "       50 

80 

'                              —  • 

1360 

2       "        6      •'       40 

90 

<                              — 

1530 

3      "        1      "       30 

100 

<                              — 

1700 

3       (<        4      "       20 

1000                                .  = 

1  litre  —  34  fl.  ounces  nearly,  or  2-g-  pints. 

THE   CONVERSION    OF   FRENCH    INTO   ENGLISH  WEIGHT. 

ALTHOUGH  a  gram  is  equal  to  15*4346  grains,  the  decimal  is  one  which 
can  never  be  used  by  photographers  ;  hence  in  the  following  table  it  is 
assumed  to  be  15|  grains,  which  is  the  nearest  approach  that  can  be  made 
to  practical  accuracy  : 

15f  grains. 
301, 

L  •          *  * 

If  grain. 
17    grains. 
321 

47: 


40 


APPENDIX. 


195 


•ab 
11! 


d 

.So 
S 


•S= 
53 


I- 

CO      , 

.So 

g 


£*| 


« 

.So 

e 


C  D  *•* 

^H 


.So 

a 


i^ 


^ 


III 

It! 


si 


"SI* 


^ 

o 


196 


THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    INSTRUCTOR. 


£ 


1 


tW*5          °   Cl 

O    -      cg'5 


fall    25 If 

o       \>       ^       02 


§  * 


•o     » 

1  3" 
•3    £ 

I  ! 
Bl 

Hi 


P  Is  1 


II 

II 


. 

1*  8-!!H  fi 

* 


•oS5g.S 

N  H=.rH 


§1S§ 

^l2SS 


jg  y 

H 

•s  P 


22    -g-g 


'      O  03 


I  3|  .- 

I  .S|  '5i 

?  5-  •§ 

3  2.g  -:. 


2         H 

II 


SPECIMEN   OF  "MOSS-TYPE"    ENGRAVED   BY  THE 
MOSS    ENGRAVING  CO,   535    PEARL  STREET,   NEW  YORK. 


SPECIMEN   OF   "MOSS-TYPE"    ENGRAVED    BY  THE 
MOSS    ENGRAVING  CO.,  .535    PEARL  STREET,   NEW  YORK. 


John   (?.    Njobs,    Prtst 

p.  ^.   NJ08B.  SUP/ 


N^OBS.    Trmmrrf.         J       E.     Ramsey.  Secreiury. 

.  A   JacUson.  ^a»<  Secy 


Send  green  stamp  (or  circular.     Send  photograph,  drawing  or  print,  for  estimate. 


OUR   SPEQIALTY. 

Firje     Illustrated    Circulars    by    our     fvjogg-Type 


GUNDLACH  OPTICAL  Co., 

ROCHESTER,    N.    Y., 

MANUFACTURERS      OF 

THE  HIGHEST  GRADE  OF 

Photographic   Lenses. 


The  Rapid  Rectigraphic. The  most  popular  Lens  in  the 


market  for  general  use. 


Tho         a  A  WIDE-ANGLE  LENS,  for  an  classes 

I  IIC 


work  ;  has  an  aperture  of  {  ;  cuts  sharp  withv 
the  full  opening,  and  is  perfectly  rectilinear. 


It  is  the  most  rapid  wide-angle  lens  in  the  market. 

Tho    UflHo    An&lD       ^  sPecial   Lens,   having  an   extreme  wide 
I  llC    VtlUC    M||Q!O.     angle  for  use  in   confined   situations,    and 
— — wide-angle  work  in  general. 

Tho  flrthnennno     A  NEW  PORTRAIT  LENS  of  superior 

I  IIC    UlillUOUUpC.     optical    quality,    for    the   highest   grade    of 

— — — — — — —     artistic  portraiture,    large   groups,   copying, 

enlarging,  and  general  gallery  work. 

For  sale  by  the  Scovill  M'fg  Co.,  and  Dealers  generally. 

Send  for  Descriptive  Price  list. 

i 


If  you  contemplate  buying  a  Lens  for  any  purpose 
whatever,  send  for 

PRICE  LIST  AND  TESTIMONIALS 

OF 

SUTER  LENSES, 


THE  BEST  IN  THE  WOULD. 

If  your  stock  dealer  doesn't  keep  them,  or  recom- 
mends any  other,  send  direct  to 


Sole  Agents, 

14  &  16  East  Lamed  Street, 

Detroit,  Mich, 


THE    UNRIVALLED 


STEINHEIL  LENSES, 


In  six  different  Series,  and  over  forty  numbers,  for  every  description 

of  work. 


SERIES  I.— Antiplanatic  Portrait  Lens.  Rectilinear  and  very  rapid. 
Designed  for  Portraits  and  Enlargements. 

SERIES  II. — Antiplanatic  Group  Lens  (see  cut).     Entirely  new  in 

principle  and  construction. 
Remarkable  for  its  rapidity, 
powerful  and  even  illumin- 
ation, and  perfectly  correct 
delineation.  The  most  rapid 
Lens  now  in  the  market, 
outside  of  the  regular  and 
expensive  portrait  combin- 
ations. Designed  for  Por- 
traits in  studio  and  open  air; 
Groups,  Architecture,  Land- 
scape, Instantaneous  Work, 
and  Enlargements.  Unex- 
celled for  Flash-light  Pho- 
tography. 

SERIES  III.— Aplanatic  Lens.  Guaranteed  equal  to  the  best  rapid 
rectilinear  combinations  in  the  market,  although  somewhat  lower  in  price. 
Designed  for  Portraits,  Groups,  Landscape,  and  Instantaneous  Work. 

SERIES  IV.— Landscape  Aplanat.  Rapid  Rectilinear  Wide-Angle 
Lens  (angle  75°).  Designed  for  Landscape,  Architecture,  and  Copying. 
Recommended  for  Flash-light  Interiors,  with  full  opening,  in  confined 
situations. 

SERIES  V.— Ordinary  Wide-Angle  Aplanat  (angle  100°).  De- 
signed for  Interiors  and  Architecture. 

SERIES  VI.— Wide  Angle  Aplanat,  for  Copying.  Designed 
specially  for  Photo-mechanical  Work,  Copying  Maps,  Charts,  Engravings, 
Drawings,  and  Paintings,  for  which  purpose  they  are  conceded  to  be  with- 
out a  rival. 

Instantaneous  and  Time  Shutters,  of  any  make,  can  be  fitted  to  all 
of  the  above  Lenses. 

For  full  illustrated  Catalogue  and  Price  List,  write  to  your  dealer, 
or  to 


H.  G.  RAMSPERGER  &  CO., 


SOLE    AGENTS, 


No.  1 80  Pearl  St.,  New  York. 


iv 


WILLIAM  C.  CULLEN, 


AGENT   FOB 

PERKEN,  SON  &  RAYMENT'S 


CELEBRATED 


Or      1   1  iM  \J  O    CAMERAS     Etc. 

ROSS    LENSES, 

Hoover  Dry  Plates, 

PURE    CHEMICALS, 


«»      Of     All 

v 


HEADQUARTERS 


FOR 


Photographers' 

REQUISITES. 


OUTFITS, 

In  All  Sizes,  a  Specialty. 


SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE, 


Firmest 


Xjs»jsru.eca.. 


vi 


Established    1865. 

JOHN  G.  HOOD,  Chairman.          WM.  D.  H.  WILSON,  Treas. 
JOS.  P.  CHEYNEY,  Sec'y. 


Largest  and  Most  Complete  Stock 

Itf    PHILADELPHIA. 


United  States  Agents  for 

ROSS 
LENSES. 


Can   supply    a 
Complete    Outfit 
AT   ONCB. 


Price  Lists 
FREE, 


ALL 

ORDERS 
FILLED 
PROMPTLY. 

Only  such  goods  as 
you   order,    and    al- 
ways at    prices  that 
you  will  approve. 

Send  to  us  your  orders  for 

Photographic 
Materials 

OF    ALL    KINDS 


OUTFITS 


& 


AMATEURS 

A    SPECIALTY. 


vii 


A.  H.  COLLINS        „ 

No.  527  ARCH  STREET. 
PHILADELPHIA, 


MANUFACTURE  EVERY  VARIETY  OF 


Cards 


Cardboards 


FOR 


Photographers'  Use, 


WHICH  THEY  OFFER  TO  THE  TRADE 


At  Prices  which  are  Low 


FOR   SUCH   STANDARD   GOODS. 


EASTMAN'S 

SPECIALTIES. 

EASTMAN-WALKER  ROLL-HOLDERS. 

AMERICAN   FILMS. 

Sample  Film  Negative  by  mail,  4c. 

PERMANENT  BROMIDE  PAPER. 

Eastman's  Transferotype  Paper. 

Sample  Transferotype  Print  by  mail,  6c.,  stamps. 

Eastman's  Enlarging  Cameras, 

Eastman's  Enlarging  Easels, 
Eastman's  View  Cameras, 

Eastman's  Dry  Plates. 

—  Send   for   Circulars.  — 

The  Eastman  Dry  Plate  and  Film  Co,, 

BRANCH    OFFICE, 

115    OXFORD    ST.,    LONDON. 


THE  AMERICAN  OPTICAL  COMPANY'S 

APPARATUS, 


INCLUDING   ALL    STYLES    OF 


Cameras  ;   Enlarging,  Reducing,  Copying  and  Multiply- 
ing Boxes ;  Tripods  ;   Plate-Holders,  for  Wet  or 
Dry  Plates  ;  Printing  Frames  ;  Amateur 
Outfits,  etc.,  etc.,  has  long  been 

UNRIVALED  FOR  BEAUTY  OF  DEW, 
UNEQUALED  FOR  DURABILITY  OF  CONSTRUCTION, 


— AND — 


UNAPPROACHED  FOR  FINENESS  OF  FINISH. 


THEY  ALWAYS  GIVE  UNQUALIFIED  SATISFACTION, 


FOR    SALE     BY     ALL 

Reputable  Photographic  Dealers, 


AND      v  THE 


SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO., 

423    BROOME    STREET, 

NEW   YORK. 
W.  IRVING  ADAMS,  Agent. 


Send    for    Latest    Catalogue. 

xi 


REflDY-PIfflED  SOLUTIONS 

FOR  PHOTOGRAPHERS'  USES. 


French  Azotate  (For  Toning  Prints). 

Price,  per  bottle,  $0  25 

Flandreau's  S.  P.  C.  Toning  Solution. 

Per  set,        ....:...  1  00 

S.  P.  C.  Pyro  and  Potash  Developer. 

Price,  per  package, 60 

S.  P.  C.  Carbonate  of  Soda  Developer. 

Price,  per  package, 50 

Hairs    Intensifier    (For    Strengthening 

Weak  Negatives).     Price,  per  bottle,      ...  75 

Flandreau's  S.  P.  C.  Reducing  Solution. 

Large  bottle, 75 

Small  bottle, 50 

Flandreau's  S.  P,  C.  Hypo  Eliminator 

(For  Removing  every  trace  of  Hyposulphite  of 
Soda  from  Negatives  and  Prints).  Price,  per  bot- 
tle, with  book  of  testing  paper,  ....  50 

Flandreau's  S.  P.  C.  Orthochromatic 

Solutions,  by  which  any  plate  may  be  rendered 
color-sensitive.  Price,  per  package,  .  .  .  1  50 

Flandreau's  S.  P.  C.  Retouching  Fluid 

(For  Varnished  or  Unvarnished  Negatives).    Price, 

per  bottle,       .  ...  25 


For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  Requisites,  and  by  the 

SCOYILL  IANUFAOTTJRIM  COIPAIT. 


PRACTICAL  *  INSTRUCTION 


Is  now    made    possible   to   every    beginner    and    student    in    the   Art-Science 

through  the 


eF?00!  °F 


Either  by  direct  personal  instruction  at  the  CHAUTAUQUA  ASSEMBLY  GROUNDS, 
in  Summer  ;  the  local  classes  at  the  School's  Headquarters,  423  Broome  Street, 
New  York  City,  during  the  Autumn,  Winter  and  Spring  ;  or  by  the  correspond- 
ing classes,  through  printed  lessons  and  the  Organ  of  the  School. 

The  Summer  School    opens  at  Chautauqua  on  or  about  July  1st  with  two 
classes. 

SUBJECTS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

PORTRAITURE,    LANDSCAPES    (Timed    and    Instantaneous),  ORTHOCHROMATIC 

METHODS,  BLACK  AND  WHITE  NEGATIVES,  PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY, 

ENLARGING  AND  REDUCING,  PRINTING  METHODS,  ALBUMEN 

PAPER    AND    READY-SENSITIZED,    PLAIN    PAPER, 

BROMIDE   OF  SILVER   PAPER,  OPALS,   TRANS-  . 

PARENCIES  AND    LANTERN   SLIDES, 

TRA  NSFEROTYPES. 


POPULAR  LECTURES  ON  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TOPICS. 


Course  of  Ten  Lessons, $5.00 

Half  Course, 3.00 

Special  Lessons,      ..........          i<0o 


Students  are   admitted   to   the   Corresponding   Classes  at   any  time   from 
October  1st  to  May  1st. 

The  Local  Classes  at  New  York  are  announced  in  season. 

For  further  particulars,  address 

PROF.  CHAS.    EHRMANN,    INSTRUCTOR, 

423  Broome  Street,  New  York  City, 
liii 
\ 


WATEEBUHY  OUTFITS. 


THE  WATERBURY  CAMERAS,  introduced  in  1885,  are  like  other  cameras 
and  apparatus  made  by  the  American  Optical  Company—  unapproach- 
able ! 

They  are  made  of  mahogany,  are  well  polished,  have  rubber  bellows, 
folding  platform,  patent  latch  for  making  bed  rigid  instantaneously, 
single  swing,  vertical  shifting  front,  and  are  as  light,  and  compact  as 
substantial  cameras  can  be  constructed. 

Fitted  with 
Eastman-  Walker 

Roll-Holder. 

1887  Model, 

with 
Automatic  Tall/ 

4x5  Waterbury  Outfits,  Complete  .........  $12  OO      22  OO 

CONSISTING   OF 

1  Single  Swing  Camera,  described  above. 
1  Scovill  Double  Dry  Holder,  with  Patent  Registering  Slides. 
1  Wooden  Carrying  Case. 
1  Improved  Taylor  Tripod. 
1  No.  A  Waterbury  Lens  with  a  set  of  Stops. 
LATEST     (  4±x5£  Waterbury  Outfit,  complete  .........  $14  00 


SIZES      i4±x6i       '"  "  "         .........  15  00 

INTRODUCED  (5x7  "  "  "        .........  16  00 

5x8  Waterbury  Outfits,  Complete  ........  $16  5O       29  OO 

CONSISTING  OF 

1  Single  Swing  Camera,  described  above. 
1  Scovill  Double  Dry  Holder,  with  Patent  Registering  Slides. 
1  Wooden  Carrying  Case. 
1  Improved  Taylor  Tripod. 

1  No.  B  Waterbury  Lens  with  revolving  diaphragm. 
5x8  Waterbury  Stereoscopic  Outfit. 
With  one  B  and  a  matched  pair  of  A  Waterbury  Lenses, 

Price,    complete,    $23.  OO. 
6Xx8*  Waterbury  Outfits,  Complete  ____  $21  OO      37  OO 

CONSISTING   OF 

1  Single  Swing  Camera,  described  above. 
1  Scovill  Double  Dry  Holder,  with  Patent  Registering  Slides. 
1  Wooden  Carrying  Case. 
1  Improved  Taylor  Tripod. 

1  No.  BB  Waterbury  Lens  with  revolving  diaphragm. 
For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  materials,  and  by  the  manufac- 

turers,  SCOVILL   MANUFACTURING   CO. 


ST.    LOTTIS 

REVERSIBLE  BACK  CAMERAS. 

(PATENTED.) 

The  St.  Louis  Reversible  Back  Cameras  have  the  patent  reversible 
back,  the  rack  and  pinion  movement,  patent  latch  for  making  the  bed  rigid 
instantaneously,  and  the  ground-glass  so  arranged  that  the  holder  may 
be  slid  in  front  of  it,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Each  Camera  is  supplied  with  one  Daisy  Holder  with  patent  Registering 
Slides  and  canvas  case. 


ST.  LOUIS  REVERSIBLE-BACK  CAMERAS. 


No 


For  View. 

Swing^back. 

Double 
Swing-back. 

110—    4 

x5 

$25  00 

$29  00 

111—  4J. 

i^A 

;  26  00 

30  00 

112—  4) 

i^A 

\  30  00 

34  00 

113—  5 

x7 

32  00 

35  00 

114—  5 

x8 

34  00 

38  00 

H5_  (jj, 

/xgi/ 

;  36  00 

40  00 

116—  8 

xlO 

40  00 

44  00 

117—11 

x!4 

.  60  00 

64  00 

Fitted  with  Eastman-Walker  Roll  Holder. 
1887  Model. 

Double 
Swing-back. 

$39  00 


Single 
Swing-back. 

$35  00 
36  00 
40  00 
44  50 
46  50 
52  00 
60  00 
90  00 


40  00 
44  00 
47  50 
50  50 
56  00 
64  00 
94  00 


Not  made  above  11x14  size. 

For  automatic  tally  on  Roll  Holder  add  $5.00. 

Canvas  cases  to  contain  Camera  with  more  than  one  Holder  made  to 
order  at  extra  price. 

For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  materials,  and  by  the  manu- 
facturers, SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO- 


XV 


Revolving-hack  Camera. 

(PATENTED.) 


(FRONT  FOCUS^PATTERN.) 

REDUCED  PRICE  LIST. 

Revolving-back   Cameras,   each  incased  in  a  canvas  bag,  with  handle, 


and  above  14x17  size,  with  two  handles. 


No.  120. 
121. 

122. 
123. 
124- 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
I39. 
130. 
131. 
132. 


REVERSIBLE. 

For  View  4     x  5 


in. 


5 
6*, 

x  7 
x  8 
<\  8V^ 

8 

J     /Z 
X  IO 

10 

X  12 

II 

x  14 

14 

X  17 

17 

18 

X  20 
X  22 

20 

x  24 

witu  detachable  test 


With 

Reversible 

Single       Doable       Back  and 

Swing.  Swing.   Holder  Extra 

$27  oo  $32  oo 
29  oo  34  oo 
31  oo  36  oo 
33  oo  38  oo 
35  oo  40  oo 
40  oo  45  oo 
45  oo  50  oo 
60  oo  65  oo 
65  oo  70  oc  $90  oo 
75  oo  80  oo  105  oo 
85  oo  90  oo  115  oo 

95  oo  ico  oo   130  oo 

115  00  120  00    150  00 


These  Cameras  are  fitted  with  Daisy  Dry-plate  Holders. 

Please  state,  when  ordering  any  size  below  10x12,  whether  front  or 
back  focus  is  desired. 

Revolving-back  Cameras,  front  focus,  not  made  above  8xio  size. 
Canvas  cases  to  contain  Camera  with  more  than  one  Holder  made  to 
order  at  extra  price. 

For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  materials,  and  by  the  manu- 
facturers, SCOVILL    MANUFACTURING   CO. 


XVI 


coVill  Selective 


Back. — In  answer  to  the  popular  demand,  a  Swing  Back 
has  been  devised  for  the  SCOVILL  DETECTIVE  CAMERAS,  which  is 
simple  and  effective.  It  is  readily  adjusted  from  the  bottom  of  the  case, 
where  all  of  the  outward  mechanism  of  this  instrument  is  placed. 

Adapter  for  Two  Senses.— This  devise  enables  one  to  use 
interchangeably,  at  pleasure,  by  simply  moving  the  focusing  lever,  a  wide 
angle  and  a  group  lens  of  quite  dissimilar  focus.  This  does  away  with 
the  necessity  of  unscrewing  the  flange  of  one  lens  in  order  to  put  on  the 
flange  belonging  to  the  other  lens. 


^oil-Holder1  Detective 


It  followed  naturally  upon  the  introduction  of  the  Roll-Holder  that  it 
should  be  applied  to  the  SCOVILL  DETECTIVE  CAMERA,  and  this 
has  been  done  in  a  manner  that  displays  the  greatest  ingenuity. 

Attached  to  each  is  the  Patent  Automatic  Tally,  to  record  the 
number  of  exposures  made.  No  Roll-Holder  Camera  is  complete 
without  this. 

All  of  Scovill  Detectives  are  fitted  with  three  Patented  Double  Dry 
Plate  Lightweight  Holders,  except  where  a  Roll-Holder  is  flitted,  and 
then  only  one  Double  Dry  Plate  Holder  is  given.  We  give  the  prices  for 
all  styles  of  Lenses,  but  we  recommend  and  guarantee  Morrison's  and 
Wale's  which  are  made  especially  for  these  boxes. 


THK 

SIZE    OF   PLATE. 

4x5.  —  Two  Double  Lightweight  Holders  (patented) 

and  Wale  Lens  (special)  ........................  $25  00 

4x5.  —  One  Patented  Roll-Holder,  Wale  Lens  (special)  ..........  35  00 

5x7.  —  Two  Double  Lightweight  Holders  (patented) 

and  Wale  Lens  (special)  .........................  40  00 

5x7.  —  One  Patented  Roll-Holder,  Wale  Lens  (special)  ..........   58  00    Automatic 

tally,  roll- 
holderand 

THK  SCOVIIiIi.  S°w'et 

holder, 

SIZE  OF  PLATE.  Without      With  With          With  With        add  to 

Lens.     Optimus.  Morrison.      Beck.          Ross,      foregoing 


ln'  weight  Holders  Ligh'"  f      ^  °°'     46  °0'     58  °0'      58  °°'      65  °° 


43  °°-     51  «>•     63  <»•      «3  00'      70  °°       "00 
Swing   Back  and  Pat.  Lens^j 

Motl^dlCbtef       ™  00.     86  00.     98  00.      9800.10500       „  00 
Light-weight  Holders.  J 


SIZE   OF   PLATE. 

4x5. 


55°°-     580°-     700°-      750°-      790°       1300 
6000-     6300'     7500'      800°-      840°       ^00 


Single    Swing,  Pat.  Lens  Ad-] 

JLe"s,rand1dDo0uble  E&pES 
Holders.  ] 


SIZE    OF    PLATE. 


95 


'  weigh'  Hoders.  6500.7000.8000.      8500.10100       1300 

m  °°-     «  «0     85  °°-      ™  ^    ™  00       13  00 


Single  Swing,  Pat.  Lens  Ad-"") 


weight  Holders. 

SIZE    OF    PLATE. 

5x7. 

3  Hour's 


105  00.  110  00.  190  00.    125  00.    14!  00       13  00 


.  ^  \       ^  «»•     <»  ««•  ^  «»•    "0  00.    121  00       15  00 
W  00-  WO  00.  105  00.    115  00.    126  00       15  00 


Single  Swing,  Pat.  Lens  Ad-  } 

juster  and  1  additional  Mor-  V      127  00.  135  00.  140  00.     15)  00.    161  00        15  00 

rison  Lens.  ) 

The  prices  of  Light-weight  Double  Dry  Plate  Holders  (patented)  for 
the  above  are  as  follows  : 

For  31^x414  plates...  $1.10.  I  For  4^x6^  plates.  ..$1.25. 
"     4    x5          "...   1.25.       "    5     x7          "     ...  1.30. 


WATERBURY  LENSES. 


The  unprecedented  success  which  has  everywhere  resulted 
from  the  employment  of  the  Waterbury  Lenses,  for  4x5  and 
5x8  plates  respectively,  induced  the  Scovill  Mfg.  Co.  to  extend 
the  series  of  this  favorite  objective.  The  popular  C  Waterbury 
Lens  gave  opportunity  for  producing  8x10  and  even  10  x  1# 
photographs  with  the  sharpness,  "detail  and  brilliancy  of  the 
smaller  sizes,  but  after  its  advent  there  was  still  a  gap  between 
the  5x8  and  8  x  10  sizes.  The  desire  to  see  the  Waterbury 
series  complete  has  led  to  the  production  of  the  B  B  Waterbury 
Lens,  which  covers  6-|x8J  (the  ever-popular  4 — 4  size)  to  the 
extreme  edges.  In  future,  revolving  diaphragms  will  be  supplied 
with  all  of  the  Waterbury  Lenses.  In  them,  are  cut  (with  mathe- 
matical accuracy)  openings  in  value  F/i5  FAo  725  F/35  Veo 
respectively. 

The  Waterbury  Lenses  are  composed  of  a  bi-convex  crown 
glass  lens  cemented  to  another  lens  of  the  plano-convex  form, 
made  of  the  best  selected  flint  glass. 

Owing  to  the  great  advances  in  the  sensitiveness  of  emulsion 
plates,  the  Waterbury  Lenses  are  now  commonly  used  for  groups 
and  for  instantaneous  views,  with  the  Scovill  Safety  Shutters, 
described  on  another  page.  No  better  testimony  can  be  given 
to  the  excellence  and  reliability  of  these  objectives,  and  the 
mathematical  accuracy  with  which  they  are  made,  than  that 
deduced  from  the  recent  test  made  of  392  lenses  of  the  C  series, 
in  which  large  number  only  two  lenses  differed  at  all  in  focal 
length  or  luminous  power  from  the  others. 

A,  Single,  for  4  x  5  plate $3  50 

A,  Matched  pair,  stereoscopic 7  00 

B,  Single,  for  5  x  8  plate. 4  50 

BB,  Single,  for  6^  x  8%  plate 6  00 

C,  Single,  for  8  x  10  plate 8  00 

For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  materials,  and  by  the  manu- 
facturers, SCOVILL    MANUFACTURING    CO. 


Tie  Scovill  Eilarpg,  Muting  and  Copiini  Cameras. 


When  ordering,  please  specify  number  and  sizes  of  kits,  also 
style  of  Holder  wanted. 

No.  61  .-Size,  6£x8i,  Price,  $30.00  I  No.  64.-Size,  11x14,  Price,  $GO.OO 
"  G2.     "      8x10,        "        35.00      "  65,     "      14x17,       "        72.00 
"63.     "    10x12,       "        48.00 1    "66.     ••      17x20,      "        90.00 
No.  67.— Size,  20  x  24,        -        -        $110.00. 
Special  sizes  and  styles  made  to  order. 

Magnesium  Flash-light  Photographs. 

C$  ince  the  introduction  of  the  Scovill  Magnesium  Gart- 
s5fa  ridges,  photographs  are  made  instantaneously 
Sc-x  which  could  not  otherwise  be  secured  without 
v®  great  expense,  trouble,  and  danger,  in  caves,  tun- 
nels, mines,  and  other  places  where  daylight  does  not 
penetrate,  and  what  is 

Equally  important  and  of  more  general  interest, 

Instantaneous  Photographs  of  Family  Groups  in  the  house ; 
Merry  Guests  at  the  festive  board ; 

Theatre,  Fancy  Dress,  and  Card  Parties,  Etc., 

are  now   made  in  the  evening,  with  the  valued   surroundings,  under  the 

happiest  auspices  which  but  a  short  time  ayo  the  most  skilled 

photographer  would  not  have  thought  possible  to  secure. 

Full  directions  for  making  portraits,  interiors  and  other  instantaneous 
photographs  in  the  dark  by  means  of  Magnesium  light  are  given  in  the 
PHOTOGRAPHIC  TIMES. 

Read  it  carefully  each  week  in  order  to  keep  posted  on  the  latest  ad- 
vances in  this  and  every  other  branch  of  Photography. 

MAGNESIUM  CARTRIDGES 


from 

PATENT  APPLIED    FOR 

Before  lighting  the  fuse  uncover  the  box.  unless  used  m  wind  or  ran 


PRICE  LIST  OF  SCOVILL'S  MAGNESIUM  CARTRIDGES. 

Per  Pkg.     Per  Gro. 
SMALL  SIZE,  in  packages  of  six  .........................  $0  30        $6  50 

LARGE     "        "  "     ..........................        40          850 


xxii 


That  the  substitution  of  a  pneumatic  release  for  the  or- 
dinary trigger  on  a  wood  drop-shutter  greatly  enhances  its 
value,  "goes  without  saying." 

The  Scovill  Time  and  Instantaneous  Shutter 

Is  Fitted  with  Pneumatic  Attachment* 

which  may  be  worked  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
Camera,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  form  part  of  a  group 
or  to  be  included  in  a  view  he  is  photographing.  This 
Shutter  may  be  used  for  either  timed  or  instantaneous  ex 
posures  ;  the  change  is  made  by  simply  moving  a  switch. 


SCOVILL  UNIVERSAL  SAFETY  SHUTTERS. 

This  Shutter  is  styled  Universal,  not  only  because  more 
of  the  Scovill  Safety  Shutters  are  in  use  than  of  any  other 
pattern,  but  because  it  can  be  arranged  with  a  variety  of 
openings,  from  %  to  2  inches  at  the  center,  as  shown  by      Scovill  Safety 
the  dotted  lines  of  the  accompanying  illustration.     Uni-       Shutter,  with 
form  distribution  of  light  over  the  plate  is  insured  by  the  Time  and  Instan- 
form  of  opening. 


The  brakes  on  all  of  these  Shutters 
make  them  safe  to  use,  by  preventing  a 
recoil  with  the  resulting  double  expo- 
sure, and  the  jarring  common  to  many 
Shutters,  which  in  time  breaks  apart  the 
glasses  of  a  Lens  where  cemented  to- 
gether— hence  the  designation  "Safety 
Shutters  " 

JPH.ICK 


Univer 

Safety 

sal  Tim 

No. 

Width  of 
Opening 
in  Slide. 

Scovill 
Uni- 
versal 
Shut- 
ters. 

Shut- 
ters, 
with 
Pneu- 
matic 

Seovill 
Safety 
Shut- 
ters. 

Shut- 
ters, 
with 
Pneu- 
matic 
Re- 

and In- 
stanta- 
neous 
Shuttei  • 
with 
Pneu- 

lease. 

matic 

Release. 

1 

VA  ins. 

$2.70 

$4.20 

$1.20 

$2.70 

$4.70 

a 

\\4>     '  ' 

2.80 

4.30 

1.30 

2.80 

4.80 

3 

1M   " 

2.90 

4.40 

1.40 

2.90 

4.90 

4 

2        " 

3.00 

4.50 

1.50 

3.00 

5.00 

5 

2^     " 

3.10 

4.60 

1.60 

3.10 

5.10 

(5 

3 

3.25 

4.75 

1.75 

3.25 

5.25 

Scovill  Universal 
Shutter. 


When  orderingthese  Shutters,  exact  diameter 
of  hood  of  Lens  should  be  given,  so  that  the 
proper  circular  opening  may  be  cut  out  to  ex- 
actly fit  hood  of  Lens.  If  not  stated,  the  Shut- 
ters -will  be  sent  without  the  round  opening  being 
cut. 

xxiii 


Scovill  Safety 
Shutter. 


Ready  Sensitised  Albumen  Paper. 

This  Paper  was  expressly  manufactured  for  and  introduced  by  us  to 
give  to  those  who  have  not  the  skill,  time,  inclination  or  appliances  to  sen- 
sitize photographic  paper  preparatory  to  printing,  an  article  of  the  finest 
quality  and  of  uniform  sensitiveness. 

PRICE    LIST. 

Size.  Per  Package. 

4x  5  inches,  in  light-tight  packages,  2  dozen $0  40 

5x  8     "  "  2     "       75 

6*x8i     "  '•  2    "       1  00 

8x10     "  "  2    •'       1  50 

18x22     "  1  per  doz.  3  00 

To  save  loss,  rolls  are  not  broken. 

TIN   CASES  to  hold  one  dozen  18x22  Sensitized  Paper,  30  cents  each, 
three     "         "  "  "       50 


For  Making  Blue  and  White  Pictures, 


Our  brand  S.  P.  C.  is  a  sure  index  of  superiority  in  texture,  the 
paper  is  better  wrapped  than  any  other,  and  is  noticeably  free  from  spots 
streaks  or  flaws. 

This  paper  is  extremely  simple  in  its  manipulation,  and  therefore 
very  convenient  for  making  proofs  from  negatives.  It  is  also  adapted  for 
the  reproduction  of  Mottoes,  Plans,  Drawings,  Manuscript,  Circulars,  and  to 
show  representations  of  Scenery,  Boats,  Machinery,  &c.,  for  an  engraver  to 
copy  from.  The  rapidity  with  which  a  print  can  be  made  with  this  paper 
is  for  numerous  purposes,  and  to  men  in  some  occupations,  a  very  great 
recommendation  in  its  favor. 


Size.  PRICK    I*ISX.  Per  Package. 

4x5  inches,  in  2  dozen  light-tight  parcels  ...................  $0  28 

5    x  8        "          2  "  "      ...................       50 

«^x  8K    "          2  "       ....................      67 

8    xlO        "          2  "       ....................      83 

To  save  loss,  parcels  are  not  broken. 
In  full  rolls  of  11  yards  each,  29  inches  wide,  $3.50  per  roll. 


IRVING  PRINTING  FRAMES 

(PATENTED.) 

The  IRVING  FRAMES  have  valuable  features  which  cannot  be  copied. 
They  are  in  workmanship,  design,  and  other  respects,  superior  to  all  other 
printing  frames. 


IRVING  PRINTING  FRAME,  CLOSED      IRVING  PRINTING  FRAME,  OPEN 


FRONT  VICW. 


BACK   VIEW. 


The  continuous  felt  pads  made  especially  to  order  for  us,  insure  abso- 
lute protection  and  uniform  pressure  throughout.  The  Irving  Patent 
Catches  lock  the  back,  so  that  when  one  flap  is  open  there  is  not  the 
slightest  danger  of  the  flaps,  paper  or  negative  slipping. 

The  springs  are  cut  by  dies  of  specially  tempered  and  tested  metal, 
and  are  riveted  to  the  backs  with  washers  underneath  to  protect  the  wood- 
work. 

The  IRVING  FRAMES  are  made  of  cherry  guaranteed  not  to  warp  or 
crack.  Their  construction  and  finish  is  acknowledged  to  be  superior  to 
that  of  all  other  printing  frames. 

The  tally  does  not  depend  upon  any  other  part  of  the  frame  to  lock  it, 
for  the  pointer  will  remain  in  place  no  matter  what  is  done  to  other  parts 
of  the  frame. 

Prices  for  Half  or  Two-thirds  Opening  Styles. 

3#x4# $  .45  6^x8^ $.70 

4x5 48  8x10 80 

4Mx5V£ 50  10x12 1.10 

4J|x6^ 55  11x14 2.10 

5x7 60  13x16 2.30 

5x8 65  14x17 2.70 

When  made  with  backs  to  open  lengthways,  ten  per  cent,  is  added  to 
the  foregoing  prices,  for  the  respective  sizes. 

xxv 


"He  flitiBfican  flmioai  of  Plot 

icTi 


FOR  1888. 


C.  W.  CANFIELD,  EDITOR. 

IT  CONTAINS  EIGHT  (8)  FULL-PAGE  HIGH  GRADE  ILLUSTRATIONS,  AND  OVER 

NINETY  (90)  ORIGINAL  CONTRIBUTIONS,  WRITTEN  EXPRESSLY  FOR 

ITS  PAGES,  BY  THE  MOST  EMINENT  PHOTOGRAPHIC 

WRITERS  OF  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA. 

THE  ILLUSTSATIONS  COMPSISE 

A  PHOTO-LITHOGRAPH,  showing  an  improved  new  process,  by 
the  Photogravure  Company  of  New  York. 

A  PHOTO-COPPERPLATE  ENGRAVING  of  a  Pictorial  Land- 
scape Subject,  by  Obernetter,  of  Munich. 

A  BROMIDE  PRINT  of  a  most  artistic  subject,  by  the  Eastman  Dry- 
Plate  and  Film  Co. 

A  ZINC  ETCHING,  from  the  Engraving,  which  is  itself  as  fine  as  an 
engraving,  by  Stevens  &  Morris. 

A  CHARMING  CHILD  PORTRAIT,  by  Crosscup  &  West's  im- 
proved  process. 

THREE  MOSS-TYPES  of  popular  subjects.     And 

Numerous  Cuts,  Diagrams,  etc,,  throughout  the  Letter-press, 

"  It  is  a  solid  volume  of  329  pages  with  a  generous  addition  of  advertise- 
ments not  inferior  in  interest  to  the  text." — The  Nation. 

"It  is  a  striking  volume  full  of  photographic  exercises,  and  excellent 
illustrations." — New  York  Sun. 

"  It  fully  keeps  up  to  the  record  of  this  firm  in  its  endeavor  to  give  to 
professional  and  amateur  photographers  a  complete  compendium  of  the 
art  of  photography." — The  New  Bedford  Evening  Standard. 

"  It  will  no  doubt  prove  an  indispensable  hand-book  to  the  enthusiastic 
photographer  whether  amateur  or  professional." — The  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger. 

"The  photographer  who  does  not  quickly  own  this  splendid  and  useful 
work  neglectshis  business  most  unwisely. " — The  Philadelphia  Photographer. 

"The  best  Annual  for  1888.  Its  publishers  can  be  justly  proud  of  issu- 
ing the  finest  work  of  the  kind  published  in  America,  if  not  in  the  world." 
—  The  Photographic  Eye. 

"  Like  its  predecessors,  it  is  filled  with  a  great  many  good  things  in  the 
line  of  practical  photographic  work.  Altogether,  the  volume  is  well-pub- 
lished and  printed,  and  is  a  useful  addition  to  a  photographer's  library." 
— Anthony's  Photographic  Bulletin. 

"All  English  readers  interested  in  the  progress  of  photography  should 
obtain  the  'American  Annual  for  1888.'  " — The  Photographic  News. 

"There  are  useful  and  suggestive  articles  by  various  authors. 
*      *      Its  general  get-up  is  altogether  excellent." — The  British  Journal  of 
Photography. 

"  It  is  a  neat  volume,  full  of  useful  articles,  tables,  formulae,  etc." — St. 
Louis  Photographer. 

The  size — royal  octavo — and  style  of  binding  is  uniform  with 
the  previous  year's  issue;  and  notwithstanding  the  expense  of 
preparation,  the  price  remains  the  same. 

Paper  covers 50c.  |  Library  Edition $1  00 

By  mail,  lOc.  additional. 

For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  photographic  materials,  and  by  the  publishers, 

SCOVILL   MANUFACTURING   COMPANY. 

XXVI 


THE 


American  Annual  of  Photography 


AND 


"Photographic  Times"  Almanac 

For    1887. 
C.    W.    CANFIELD,    Editor. 


A  STANDARD  BOOK  OE  REFERENCE. 


It  contains  five  full-page  illustrations  : 

AN  EXQUISITE  PHOTO-GRAYURE,  by  Ernest  Edwards. 
A  BROMIDE  PRINT,  by  the  Eastman  Company. 

A  SILVER  PRINT,  by  Gustar  Cramer,  of  St.  Louis. 

TWO  MOSS  TYPES,  by  the  Moss  Engraying  Company. 

197  pages  of  Contributed  Matter,  consisting  of  articles  on  various 
subjects,  by  80  representative  Photographic  writers  of  this  country 
and  Europe. 

Also,  in  addition  to  the  contributed  articles  : — Yearly  Calendar.  Eclip- 
ses, the  Seasons.  Church  Days,  Holidays,  etc.  Monthly  Calendar,  giving 
Sunrise  and  Sunset  for  every  day  in  the  year  ;  Moon's  phases  ;  also,  dates 
of  meetings  of  all  American  Photographic  Societies.  A  list  of  American 
and  European  Photographic  Societies.  Photographic  Periodicals,  Ameri- 
can and  European.  Books  relating  to  Photography,  published  1886.  -  Ap- 
proved Standard  Formulae  for  all  processes  now  in  general  use.  Tables 
of  Weights  and  Measures.  American  and  Foreign  Money  Values.  Com- 
parisons of  Thermometric  Readings.  Comparisons  of  Barometric  Read- 
ings. Symbols  and  Atomicity  of  the  Chemical  Elements.  Symbols, 
chemical  and  common  names  and  solubilities  of  the  substances  used  in 
Photography.  Tables  for  Enlargements  and  Reductions.  Equations  re- 
lating to  Foci.  Tables  of  Comparative  Exposures,  Freezing  Mixtures. 
Photographic  Patents  issued  1886.  Postage  Rates.  All  Tables,  Formulae, 
etc.,  brought  down  to  date  and  especially  prepared  or  revised  for  this  work. 

Price,  per  Copy,  SO  Cents.    By  mail,  We.  extra. 
Library  Edition,  $1.00.  "  " 

For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  photographic  materials,  and  by  the  publishers, 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 


THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TIMES 


FOR 


December  23,  1887 


IS   A. 


DOUBLE  ILLUSTRATED  HOLIDAY  NUMBER 


OF  UNUSUAL  INTEREST  AND  VALUE. 


CONTENTS.- 


Page 

Frontispiece— Portrait  of  C.  W.  Canfleld. 

A  Review  of  the  Photographic  Year-Edito- 
rial ....  .  .  .  637 

General  Notes— Editorial  ....  639 
Tranaferrotypes  on  Porcelain— The  Same 
on  Canvas— Mr.  John  E.  Dumont  Wins 
Another  Prize  in  England-What  is  an 
Amateur  Photographer  ? — How  Can  the 
Management  and  Membership  be  Brought 
into  Closer  Communion  ?  — The  Photo- 
graphic Society  of  Berlin— Dr.  Stolze's 
Recommendation  Regarding  Magnesium 
Flash  Light— Sugared  Lime  water  Better 
than  Caustic  Soda  for  Hydroxylamine 
Developers— Experiments  in  Bleaching— 
Kaoline — Recent  Experiments  in  Paraffin- 
ing Corks— The  Reason  Why  Some  Photo- 
graphs do  not  Look  like  the  People  they 
are  Intended  to  Represent— Retouching 
Overdone— The  Number  of  Photographers 
in  America. 

Letters  on  Landscape :  Addressed  to  an  Amer- 
ican Friend -No.  VIII  —  Illustrated— By 
H.  P.  Robinson  ...  .  641 

Gelatine:  Its  Manufacture,  Characteristics, 
and  Practical  Uses  in  Photography— By 
W.  M.  Ashman 643 

Development  of  Instantaneous  Plates  —  By 
Robt.  E.  M.  Bain 645 

How  to  Prevent  Mealiness  in  Prints— By  J.  R. 
Swain 645 

A  Photographic  Outing  with  Mr.  E.  P.  Roe  in 
the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson — By  Rev. 
W.  H.  Burbank  ....  .  646 

"  The  Old  Stone  Bridge."    Full  page  Illustration. 

The  Meisenbach— Editorial       ....      647 

Charles  W.  Canfleld— Editorial  .       .       .        .648 

American  Bibliography  of  Photography— By 
C.W.  Canfleld  .  .  .648 


Page 


John  Manson  :  A  Studio  Story— By  W.  J.  Still- 
man       oov 

Her  Photograph— Poem- By  K.  E.  C.  .  .  65t 
Hydrochinon-By  John  Carbutt  .  .  .652 
Making  Solutions-Illustrated— By  Frank  La 

Manna 653 

Light   for   the    Dark-Room— By    Charles   E. 
Willard       ....  ...  653 

A  Rainy  Day  on  Electra— By  A.  .       .653 

A  Portraits-Poem— Shakespeare        .       .        .656 
The  Photographic  School  at  Chautauqua— Il- 
lustrated— By  Mrs.  E.  N.  Lockwood       .      656 
What  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Photography 

is-By  Prof.  Charles  Ehrmann    .        .        .657 
An  Effectual  Restrainer  —  By  C.  D.  Cheney, 

D.D.S .657 

Why  He  Failed « 658 

Correspondence — 

Ten-per-cent  Solutions— By  Dr.  H.  D.  Gar- 
rison   658 

An  "Interesting  Philosophical  Fact— Il- 
lustrated—By  Rev.  Clarence  E.  Wood- 
man. Ph.  D/ 658 

Bromide    Paper  for    Making    Duplicate 

Drawings— By  Jno.  G.  C          .       .       .     «W 
Rendering  Paper  Negatives  Translucent- 
Illustrated— By  Alex'r  Henderson  .       .  669 
The  History  of  Photography— By  P.  C. 

Duchochois 659 

Flandreau's  Hypo-eliminator— By  W.  H. 

Sherman ««0 

Meetings  of  Sociefies 660 

Photographic  Section  of  the  Rochester 

Academy  of  Science 6«0 

Pictures  Received 661 

Our  Editorial  Table 6«1 

Another  Review  of  the  "  History  "  .  .662 
Notes  and  Queries 662 


Price,  same  as  usual,  10  cents  per  copy.  For  Sale  by  all  dealers 
in  Photographic  Materials,  The  American  News  Co.,  and  all  its 
branches,  and  by  the  publishers, 


SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY. 

xxviii 


"  It  is  interesting  as  a  novel  and  of  vastly  more  value." — REV.  W.  H.  BURBANK. 

"  It  is  a  book  well  worth  reading,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  live  photog- 
rapher."- J.  R.  SWAIN. 

fl  Every  lover  of  photography  will  possess  it."—  The  Philadelphia  Photographer. 

44  The  book  is  an  interesting  contribution  to  the  growing  list  of  photographic  literature." 
—  The  Brooklyn  Times. 

"  The  book  is  well  written,  well  printed,  prettily  bound,  and  what  is  better,  contains  a 
complete,  true  and  instructive  account  of  the  discoveries  and  successive  improvements  of 
all  the  processes  employed  since  the  beginning  of  our  beautiful  art."— P.  C.  DUCHOCHOIS. 


"A  HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY." 

Written  as  "a  Practical  Q-uide  and  an  Introduction  to  its  Latest  Developments. 

(Scovill's  Photographic  Series,  Number  Twenty-three.) 

By  W.  JEROME  HARRISON,  F.G.S., 

And  containing  a  full-page  Portrait  of  the  Author,  with  a  Biographical 

Sketch. 

o CONTENTS. o 

Introduction. 

Chapter  I. — The  Origin  of  Photography. 

Chapter  II. — Some  Pioneers  of  Photography — Wedgwood  and  Niepce. 

Chapter  III. -"-The  Daguerreotype  Process. 

Chapter  IV. — Fox-Talbot  and  the  Calotype  Process. 

Chapter  V. — Scott-Archer  and  the  Collodion  Process. 

Chapter  VI. — Collodion  Dry-Plates,  with  the  Bath. 

Chapter  VII. — Collodion  Emulsion. 

Chapter  VIII. — Gelatine  Emulsion  with  Bromide  of  Silver. 

Chapter  IX. — Introduction  of  Gelatino-Bromide  Emulsion  as  an 
Article  of  Commerce,  by  Burgess  and  by  Kennett. 

Chapter  X. — Gelatine  Displaces  Collodion. 

Chapter  XI. — History  of  Photographic  Printing  Processes. 

Chipter  XII.  —  History  of  Photographic  Printing  Processes  (continued). 

Chapter  XIII. — History  of  Roller-Slides  and  of  Negative-Making  on 
Paper  and  on  Films. 

Chapter  XIV. — History  of  Photography  in  Colors. 

Chapter  XV. — History  of  the  Introduction  of  Developers — Summing  up. 

Appendix. — Dr.  Maddox  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Gelatino-Bromide 
Process. 

The  book  is  uniform  in  size  of  page  and  type  with  the  other  numbers 
of  Scovill's  well-known  Photographic  Series.  Bound  substantially  in 
cloth,  with  gilt  imprint.  Price,  $1.00. 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO.,  Publishers, 


"  It  has  the  rare  merit  of  being1  both  concise  and  comprehensive." — W.  H.  SHERMAN. 

"  The  work  is  a  most  valuable  and  interesting  addition  to  our  photographic  literature." 
—  The  Photographic  Eye. 

"  Any  one  who  would  like  to  read  the  history  of  one's  profession — and  who  would  not  ? — 
will  find  much  to  enjoy  in  this  book,  and  much  of  profit  as  well."—  The  St.  Louis  Photog- 
rapher. 

"  It  presents  in  a  brief  and  comprehensive  way  the  origin  and  development  of  this  art, 
with  its  consequent  theories  and  experiments,  and  will  be  of  value  and  interest."—  The 
Independent. 

"  The  story  is  told  in  an  interesting  style,  and  with  such  copious  references  that  those 
who  have  the  time  and  inclination  can  readily  enter  into  more  deeply  upon  the  subject,  and 
follow  the  course  recommended."—  The  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

xxix 


'•PIlTOGIIPIHf  P1IITIJ6  PIETHODS," 

A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TO  THE  PROFESSIONAL  AND  AMATEUR  WORKER. 

Scovill's  Photographic  Series  Number  22, 
By  The  Rev   W.  H.  BURBANK. 


I  lisa  volume  of  more  than  200  pages,  uniform  in  size  of  page  and  type  with  "  THE  PHO- 
TOGRAPHIC NEGATIVE"  and  the  other  numbers  of  the  Scovill  Photo-  Series;  is  neatly  bound 
in  cloth,  with  gilt  titling ;  and  both  inside  and  out  makes  a  most  attractive  appearance. 

Treating  as  it  does  of  afield  in  photographic  literature  so  long  neglected,  and  one 
which  is  so  important  to  all  practical  photographers,  this  book  is  almost  indispensible. 
It  is  the  only  book  in  photographic  literature  to-day,  which  covers  this  ground,  and  it  does 
so  completely. 

The  chapters  which  it  contains  on  the  following  subjects,  give  an  idea  of  its  com- 
pleteness and  practical  value : 

INTRODUCTION— THEORY  OF  LIGHT;  ACTION  OF  LIGHT  UPON  SENSITIVE  COMPOUNDS; 
RESUME  OF  PRINTING  PROCESSES. 

CHAPTER  I. — PRINTING  WITH  IRON  AND  URANIUM  COMPOUNDS. 
CHAPTER  II. — THE  SILVER  BATH. 
CHAPTER  III.— FUMING  AND  PRINTING. 
CHAPTER  IV. — TONING  AND  FIXING— WASHING. 
CHAPTER  V. — PRINTING  ON  OTHER  THAN  ALBUMEN  PAPER. 
CHAPTER  VI.— THE  PLATINOTYPE. 
CHAPTER  VII. — PRINTING  WITH  EMULSIONS. 
CHAPTER  VIII.— MOUNTING  THE  PRINTS. 
CHAPTER  IX.— CARBON  PRINTING. 
CHAPTER  X. — PRINTING  ON  FABRICS 
CHAPTER  XL— ENLARGEMENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII. — TRANSPARENCIES  AND  LANTERN  SLIDES. 
CHAPTER  XIII.— OPAL  AND  PORCELAIN  PRINTING. 
CHAPTER  XIV. — PHOTO.  CERAMICS — ENAMELLED  INTAGLIOS. 
CHAPTER  XV. — PHOTO-MECHANICAL  PRINTING  METHODS. 
CHAPTER  XVI. — VARIOUS  METHODS  FOR  PUTTING  PICTURES  ON  BLOCKS  AND  METAL  PLATES 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  THE  ENGRAVER. 

CHAPTER  XVII. — RECOVERY  OF   SILVER  FROM    PHOTOGRAPHIC  WASTES— PREPARATION   OF 

SILVER  NITRATE,  ETC. 
INDEX. 

It  also  contains  TWO  (2)  FULL  PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS,  an  exquisite  Photo-gravure  and  a 
Pictorial  Bromide  Print,  which  alone  are  worth  the  price  asked  for  the  complete  book. 


PRICE,  IN  SUBSTANTIAL  CLOTH  BINDING,  $1,00. 


For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  photographic  materials,  or  sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  price, 
by  the  publishers, 


SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 

423  Broome  St.,  SEW  YORK 


THE    COMPANION    VOLUME    TO 

"  Photographic    Printing    Methods, 


BY    THE    SAME   AUTHOR, 

The    Rev.    W.    H.    BURBANK, 

ENTITLED, 


(Scovill's  Photographic  Series  No.  Twenty-five.) 
A     PRACTICAL 


TO  THE  PREPARATION  OF  SENSITIVE  SURFACES  BY  THE 
CALOTYPE,  ALBUMEN,  COLLODION,  AND  GELATINE  PRO- 
CESSES, ON  GLASS  AND  PAPER,  WITH  SUPPLEMENTARY 
CHAPTER  ON  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.,  ETC. 

It  contains  a  Meisenbach  Frontispiece  of  a  pictorial  subject  from  a 
negative  made  by  the  author.  Full  description  of  his  method  for  making 
the  Emulsion  is  given  ;  also  much  other  valuable  information,  never  before 
published. 

Profusely  illustrated  with  cuts,  two  full-page  pictorial  Mosstypes,  and 
more  than  200  pages  of  valuable  reading  matter.  An  indispensable  com- 
panion to  "THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRINTING  METHODS,"  as  can  be  seen  at  a 
glance  at  the  following  complete 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER. 

Preface. 

I.  General  Remarks  on  Sensitive  Surfaces,  etc. 

II.  Preliminary  Remarks  on  Exposure,  Development,  Fixing,  etc. 

III.  Calotype. 

IV.  Sensitive  Surfaces  on  Glass—  Preparation  of  the  Glass. 
V.  The  Albumen  Process. 

VI.  The  Old  Collodion  Process,  Wet  Plates. 

VII.  The  Collodion  Process,  Dry  Plates. 

VIII.  Collodion  Emulsion—  Collodio-bromide  of  Silver. 

IX.  The  Gelatine  Process. 

X.  Coating  the  Plates. 

XI.  Development,  Fixing,  etc.  » 

XII.  Paper  Negatives—  Stripping  Films  on  Paper,  Card-board,  and  Collodion. 

XIII.  Failures  in  the  Gelatino-bromide  Process. 

XIV.  Methods  of  Stripping  Films  from  Glass  Plates. 
XV.  Color-sensitive  Plates. 

XVI.  Black  and  White  Negatives. 

XVII.  Instantaneous  Photography. 

XVIII.  Touching-up  the  Negative. 

XIX.  Photo  -micrography. 

XX.  Micro-photography. 

XXI.  The  Transformation  of  Negatives  into  Positives. 

XXII.  Obernetter's  Method  for  the  Direct  Production  of  Negatives  from  Negatives. 
Index. 

Substantially  bound  in  cloth,  uniform  with  its  companion  volume,  and 
the  other  numbers  of  Scovill's  Photographic  Series.  Price,  $1.50. 

For  sale  by  all  dealers,  or  sent  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  price,  by  the 
publishers, 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

VV.  IRVING  ADAMS,  Agent. 

xxxi 


Wilson's  Photographic  Publications. 

For  Sale  by  the  Scovill  Manufacturing  Co. 


Price, 
Per  Copy. 

WILSON'S  QUARTER  CENTURY  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.-By  EDWARD  L.  WIL- 
SON, Ph.D.  "  The  best  of  everything  boiled  out  from  all  sources."  Profusely 
illustrated,  and  with  notes  and  elaborate  index $4  oo 

WILSON'S  PHOTOGRAPHICS.— "Chautauqua  Edition,"  ^srith  Appendix.  By 
EDWARD  L.  WILSON,  Ph.D.  A  most  complete  photographic  lesson-book.  Covers 
every  department.  352  pages.  Finely  illustrated ; 4  oo 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY.-By  DR.  H.  W.^VOGEL.  Revised  by 
Edward  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  Gives  special  consideration  to  Emulsion  Photog- 
raphy, and  has  an  additional  chapter  on  Photography  for  Amateurs.  Em- 
bellished with  a  full-page  electric-light  portrait  by  Kurtz,  and  seventy-two 
wood-cuts 3  °° 

PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.— By  H.  P.  ROBINSON.    For  the  art 

photographer.     Cloth,  $1.50 ;  paper  cover i  oo 

BIGELOW'S  ARTISTIC  PHOTOGRAPHY,  with  photographs  400 

HEARN'S  STUDIES  IN  ARTISTIC  PRINTING,  with  photographs 3  oo 

BURNET'S  HINTS  ON  ART.     A  fac  simile  reproduction  of  the  costly  original 

edition 4  oo 

PHOTO-ENGRAVING,  PHOTO-ETCHING,  AND  PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 

By  W.  T.   WILKINSON.    Revised  and  enlarged  by  EDWARD  L.  WILSON,  Ph.D. 
Illustrated.    180  pages.    Cloth  bound 3  °° 

PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TO  PHOTOGRAPHIC  AND  PHOTO-MECHANICAL 
PRINTING.  By  Prof.  W.  K.  BURTON.  Amply  illustrated.  348  pages.  Cloth 
bound i  oo 

THE  PHILADELPHIA*  PHOTOGRAPHER.— Edited  by  EDWARD  L.  WILSON, 
Ph.D.  A  semi-monthly  magazine,  illustrated  by  photographs.  $5.00  a  year ; 
for  six  months 250 

THE    PHOTOGRAPHIC    COLORISTS'    GUIDE.-By    JOHN    L.    GIHON.     The 

newest  and  best  work  on  painting  photographs i  5° 

WILSON'S  LANTERN  JOURNEYS.— By  EDWARD  L.  WILSON,  Ph.D.  In  three 
volumes.  For  the  Lantern  Exhibitor.  Give  incidents  and  facts  in  entertain- 
ing style  of  about  3,000  places  and  things,  and  travels  all  over  the  world.  Per 
volume 2  °° 

PHOTOGRAPHIC    MOSAICS,  1888.    Published  annually.    Cloth  bound,    $1.00; 

Paper  cover 5° 

xxxii 


BRANDS  AND  SENSITOMETEB,  NUMBEKS: 


CARBOTT'S1..DRY  PLATES 
*  "CELLULOID"  FILMS,  ' 


"ECLIPSE,"  Sen.  27. — Is  extremely  sensitive,  and  specially  intended  for 
quick  studio  exposures,  concealed  and  detective  cameras,  instantaneous 
views,  and  magnesium  flash-light  photography. 

"SPECIAL,"  Sen.  23  to  25. — For  portraits,  instantaneous  views,  outdoor 
groups,  etc.  Blue  Label.  This  plate  and  our  Ortho,  Sen.  23  to  25,  are 
the  best  plates  for  professionals  and  view  work. 

"ORTHOCHROMATIC"  Plates,  Sen.  16  to  27,  give  correct  color  values. 
The  best  plates  for  landscapes,  interiors,  photo-micrography,  portrait- 
ure in  varied-colored  draperies,  photographing  paintings,  flowers,  etc. 

"B"  Plates,  Sen.  16  to  20. — For  landscape  views  and  general  photography. 
Admittedly  the  finest  plate  for  professional  and  amateur  all-around  work. 

"B"  PROCESS  Plates,  Sen.  12. — For  use  by  photo-lithographers,  photo- 
engravers,  and  zinc-etchers  in  making  intense  and  clear-line  negatives. 
(Made  as  strippers  to  order.) 

"A"  GELATINO-ALBUMEN  Plates.— For  lantern  slides  and  copying. 

"A"  GELATINO-ALBUMEN  GROUND  GLASS  Plates,  specially 
prepared  for  window  transparencies. 

STRIPPING  PLATES. — For  photo-mechanical  printers.  Emulsions  "  B" 
20  and  "Special"  23  to  25,  kept  in  stock.  "Eclipse"  27  made  to  order. 

"CELLULOID  "  FILMS— TRANSPARENT— Emulsion  «B,"  Sen. 

1 2,  for  producing  intense  negatives  for  photo-reproductive  processes. 

' '  CELLU  LOI D "  FILMS-MAT-SURFACE.-Emulsions"Eclipse," 

Sens.  26  and  27 ;  "  Orthochromatic,"  Sens.  23  to  27 ;  "Special,"  Sens.  23  to 
25;  "B,"  Sens.  16  to  20. 

"CELLULOID"  POSITIVE  FILMS— WHITE  AND  PINK.— 

"  A  "  emulsion.     For  producing  positives  by  contact,  or  enlargements  by  the 
camera  and  developing. 


CORRECT  WORKING  FORMULA  IN  EVERY  PACKAGE. 


CARBUTT'S  SPECIALTIES. 

Yellow  Color  Screens,  for  use  with  Orthochromatic  plates,  made  of 

two  cemented  plate-glass;  sizes  2%  x  2^,  75  cts.;  3^  x  3^,  each  $i  oo 

Eiko-cum-Hydro  Two  Solution  Developer,  two  8-oz  bottles    .    .  60 

"Roxyline"  Enamel,  for  varnishing  Fositives,  Transparencies,  and 

Negatives.  Used  cold.  Price,  4-oz.  bottle,  400.;  8-oz.  bottle  .  .  75 

Multum  in  Parvo  Dry  Plate  Lantern 6  oo 

Keystone  Dry  Plate  Varnish,  8-oz.  bottle 

Translucent  Ruby  Paper,  25  x  20,  250.;  by  mail 

Concentrated  Pyro  and  Soda-Potash  Developer,  two  8-oz.  bottles 
in  one  case 

Lantern  Slide  Mats,  with  gilt  line  around  opening,  per  100  .... 

Adhesive  Binding  Strips  for  Slides,  per  100 

Thin  Crystal  Cover  Glass,  3^  x  4,  per  dozen 


50 
30 

60 
oo 

20 

35 


CIRCULAR  INSTANTANEOUS  PLATES  FOR  CONCEALED  CAMERA, 

Per  doz.,  5  ^ -inch  diam.,  $i.ior  6^. inch  diam.,  $1.50. 

CARBUTT'S  LANTERN  PLATES  55  CTS.  PER  DOZ. 

On  Specially  Imported  THIN  CR  YSTAL  GLASS,  Size  3%  x  4. 

For  Sale  by  all  Merchants  in  Photographic  Materials. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1  -year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made 
4  days  prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

APR  18  2003 


REC'DPUEL  JUL29T0 


Wl 


DD20  15M  4-02 


GENERAL  LIBRARY -U.C.  BERKELEY 


'1-89255 

" 


UNiVERsrry  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


